Charles I (1516-56) Flashcards
Charles foreign policy
key dates:
- 1521 - Treaty of Bruges
- 1521-26 - Italian wars
- 1526 - Treaty of Madrid
- 1526-30 - Wars of the League of Cognac
- 1527 - sack of Rome
- 1529 - Peace of Cambrai
- 1527 - Cortes approved funding for war with Turks
- 1535 - invasion of Tunis
overview:
- Charles held such an expansive number of lands that it was hard for him to control all of them, thus his policies mainly focused in the defence and preservation of his lands
The Italian Wars (1521-26)
- fought between France, England & Charles’ territories
- began with French attempt on Navarre in 1521
- led to Treaty of Bruges (1521), between England and Spain, agreeing to war with France, but Charles failed to hold up his end of treaty and it failed
- Papacy initially sided with Charles, but 1524 Pope became concerned with Charles’ success and power in France and swapped sides
- Francis attempted to push back but was defeated at Pavia in 1525 and was captured
- Francis signed Treaty of Madrid in 1526 to gain his freedom
- he retracted his claims in Italy and Burgundy, but as soon as he got back to France he disavowed the treaty
Wars of the League of Cognac (1526-30)
- League of Cognac formed in 1526 because Pope Clement became uneasy of Charles’ influence
- in the league was: France, Papal states, Navarre and several Italian provinces
- League initially made progress in Italy until:
- the Sack of Rome in May 1527
- Charles army hadn’t been paid and so they sacked Rome, causing outrage
- while it caused a scandal, it did force the Pope to pursue a peaceful approach as he was captured
- in 1528, Genoese fleet sided with Charles
- Peace of Cambrai (1529) ended French involvement, confirming Spanish victory in Southern Italy (Naples)
- Florentine Republic held on for another year, but fell in 1530 ending war
campaign against the Turks:
- 1526 Suleiman defeated Hungary putting them on Austrian border, making them a real threat
- Cortes approved funding for war against Turks in 1527
- Barbarossa led numerous attacks against Spain
- Charles now free of constraint of war in Italy and with a full time maritime force (the Genoese), began more offensive policy
- Charles launched invasion of Tunis (Barbarossa’s centre) in 1535 and was successful, but Barbarossa escaped
- despite success, little was done in later years as Charles preoccupied with Germany
- 1541 attempted attack on Algiers but fleet destroyed by a storm
- in final decades of his reign, Muslims retook much of what Charles had won (including Tunis)
Government under Charles
key dates:
- 1519 - Charles becomes HRE
- 1526 - Charles marries Isabella of Portugal
- 1522 - Council of War set up
- 1523 - Council of Finance set up
- 1524 - Council of Indies set up
- 1526 - Council of State set up
- 1516 - Los Cobos appointed secretary
overview:
- Charles ruled over an extensive empire which constantly demanded his attention in multiple places, so he used a series of powerful secretaries, who acted with the authority of a king to maintain order in his absence
- also heavily developed the conciliar system, establishing numerous new councils
one ruler, independent lands:
- the Comuneros and Germania revolt showed the importance of dealing with and respecting the rights and demands of individual states
- Charles spent 7 years in Spain between 1522-29, the longest he spent continuously in any of his territories in his 40 year reign, demonstrating the need to control all territories personally
- it was a key time for Charles’ personal consolidation; he married Isabella of Portugal in 1526, appeasing many who disliked his foreignness, and he travelled all over Spain
- overall the period was a great success for consolidating his reign effectively and projecting the idea he was engaged
- Charles court:
- he accepted Spanish officials over Burgundians and went out of his way to learn, showing astute leadership
- retained the fancy Burgundian court, which cost 200,000 ducats per year by 1550s
- was very costly for a man rarely in the country, creating further resentment
- this was a sharp contrast with F&I who were said to only wear “woollen clothes”, modest attire
conciliar government:
- was necessary as:
- it already existed under F&I, so would provoke less opposition
- fractious nature of Spain meant having one governing body would have been impossible
- in 1526, Council of State was created which aimed to centralise Spanish and German goverment
- in 1522 Council of War created for military stratagem
- in 1523 Council of Finance
- in 1524 Council of Indies
- councils dominated by letrados (lawyers) rather than nobles, showing prioritisation of aptitude over lineage
individuals and domestic policy:
- Charles government primarily resided over several key individuals, meaning different personalities greatly shaped domestic policy
Gattinara:
- the first major secretary, styled as ‘Grand Chancellor’
- he was Charles right hand man from the start of his reign, but fell out of favour in a power struggle with Los Cobos in late 1520s
- he was strongly Erasmian
- believed in a global Christian empire under Charles, hence the driving force behind early aggressive policy in Italy
- he was the primary motivator behind conciliar expansion: created Councils of Finance & Indies and expanded Councils of Castile & State
- died in 1530 and his authority was divided between Los Cobos and Granville
Francisco de los Cobos:
- appointed secretary in 1516
- quickly became most influential of Charles’ secretaries and lasted through Charles reign
- he favoured hidalgos instead of letrados or upper nobility
- this meant they were very loyal, but they did lack benefits of educated letrados
- after Gattinara’s death, he was given control of Italian affairs
- in 1543 he was ennobled as Marquis
others:
- Granville who notably controlled foreign policy and the HRE later in the reign
- Alba favoured war in Italy, arguing strong control of the peninsula was vital for fighting the Turks
- Fonseca controlled policy in Indies until his death in 1524 and he was replaced by the Council of Indies
Revolts under Charles
key dates:
- 1519 - Germania revolt began
- 1521 - bulk of revolt put down
- 1523 - Germaine de Foix appointed viceroy of Valenica
- 1520 - Communeros revolt began
overview:
- at the beginning of his reign, Charles received significant resentment, largely due to his foreignness, but significantly these were suppressed and did not recur, showing his success as a monarch
Germania revolt:
- main causes were:
- fear of Islam, brought on by Muslim corsairs
- a resentment for the Moorish population
- the recent plague; Church preached it was a punishment for their sins, but the rich left the city to avoid it, thereby avoiding ‘punishment’, despite being those the mob regarded as most sinful
- began in Aug 1519, when armed mobs attacked the Inquisition in Valencia for being to lenient with Islam
- as the mob took control of the city, a weaver Juan Llorenz took control, appointing a council of 13 (modelled after Jesus and his disciples) to govern the ‘Germania’ (Holy brotherhood)
- they sent letters to Charles, acquiring royally ordained authority, this acted as a catalyst, bolstering the strength of the revolt
- with control of the city, they began forcibly converting Muslims
- governor of Valencia attempted to put down revolt but was defeated at Gandia in 1521
- when Llorez died and was replaced by Peris, revolt became more radical
- he lead an attack in the Moors, leaving Valencia unguarded so the city was retaken and Peris was executed
- in Oct 1521 bulk of the Germania were defeated and 800 rebels executed
- in 1523, Charles appointed Germaine de Foix as viceroy of Valencia and she issued a general pardon in Dec 1524
- result of rebellion was increased noble support for Charles
Comuneros revolt:
- was a signal of discontent felt among many with their new king
- began in 1520 when Toledo and Salamanca refused to send representatives to the Santiago Cortes which was called to try raise funding before Charles left for HRE
- before Charles’ departure, the corregidors were expelled from Toledo and soon after other towns followed suit
- Toledo began sending military assistance to the towns turning the defiance into outright rebellion
- rebellion was largely inspired by a concern for Charles’ priorities and his focus abroad, as can be seen with the initial refusal to send representatives
- ultimately the revolt expanded to 13 towns which united under one organisation known as the Santa Juntas de Comunidad which claimed to be the true government of Spain
- they captured Joana ‘de Loco’, who was Queen following Isabellas death and attempted to use her as their figurehead
- this shows the apparent attempt to overthrow Charles showing the seriousness of the threat
- it was an uprising against Charles by the heart of Castile, with 14 of the 18 towns of the Cortes joining the Santa Juntas
- ultimately the rebellion was defeated:
- Charles appointed the Admiral of Castile to be co-regent alongside the now imprisoned Adrian, who gathered and led a royalist force
- this culminated in the Battle of Villalar, where the rebel force were defeated by 4000 royalist troops
- Toledo continued to hold out but it was clear revolt was over
- Charles promised to return to Spain and marry a Spanish princess, personally intervening to solve the problem
- following this Toledo was captured
Charles religious policy
key dates:
- 1517 - Erasmians invited to Spain
- 1522 - Polyglot Bible published
- 1521 - first ban of Protestant books
- 1529 - inquisition began to crack down on Erasmians
- 1538 - last Erasmian power died
- 1525 - Royal Edict condemned Illuminist teachings
- 1527 - Ignatius of Loyola jailed
- 1526 - Charles visited Granada and tried to tighten rules
overview:
- with growing threat from Luthers ideolgies, focus of inquisition shifted from Jews to heretical ideas
- whilst some beliefs gained traction in Spain, they were ultimately crushed, demonstrating strong religious unity and doctrine in Spain
Erasmians:
- Cisneros had been a Erasmian sympathiser and he invited Erasmus to Spain in 1517, and his university in Alcala was a beacon for Erasmian ideology
- the Polyglot Bible (published 1522) was indicative on growing emphasis on scripture and less authority of the Pope
- 1522 onwards Erasmus’ works became mainstream; translation of his ‘Handbook for a Christian Soldier’ published 1526
- Adrien of Utrecht issued first ban on Protestant books in 1521 showing opposition to extremist ideas
- Charles wrote to Erasmus personally and said “we will always hold your teachings in great esteem”
- when Charles and Erasmian advisors left for Italy in 1529, the Inquisition cracked down
- that year Manrique was confined to his see in Seville, without opposition of Charles, showing his private religious beliefs were overridden by concern for government and stability which shows his competency
- purges began of Erasmians: Vergara and Charles’ own chaplain arrested in 1533; multiple Erasmians arrested 1529
- last Erasmian power died with Manrique in 1538
Illuminists:
- illuminists began to emerge in Spain, containing diluted Lutheran doctrine
- ideas became seen as a threat as reformation took off
- Royal Edict in 1525 condemned Illuminist teachings
- Jesuit founder Ignatius of Loyola jailed in 1527 for possible Illuminist ideas
- overall, little actual Protestantism emerge under Charles: despite its focus on the matter, inquisition only punished 105 Lutheranism in Spain
- nonetheless, was largely the vigilance of the inquisition and structured control they exerted which crushed any radical ideas before they could spread
Church:
- Charles religious policy tempered with an eye towards corporal gain
- e.g. he allowed his policy of reforming Granadan population to be stayed by bribery
- early in his reign, Charles benefited from a highly favourable Pope, Adrian VI, who had been his tutor
- however was only Pope for 1 year and afterwards all Popes were Italian
- Pope Adrian empowered Charles to appoint every major ecclesiastical office in Spain
- Charles continued F&I attempts to become ultimate authority over the Spanish Church
- figures such as Talavera organised reform on local smaller scale while Tavara led reforms in wider context
moriscos:
- Germania revolt led to many forced conversions
- on visit to Granada in 1526 Charles was informed that although it had been 27 years since their ‘conversion’ not even 27 of them had truly converted
- as a result, Charles attempted to tighten rules and improve clerical education, but this was unsuccessful
- a subsidy paid by the Moriscos: the farda tax, which produced 20,000 ducats per year was enforced instead
Charles in the New World
key dates:
- 1519 - Cortes led expedition to Mexico
- 1521 - appointed governor of ‘Mexico City’
- 1524 - Encomiendas introduced
- 1524 - Council of Indies set up
- 1532 - explored new areas in Peru
- 1532 - Battle of Cajamarca
- 1533 - Pizzaso sacked Cusco
- 1541 - Pizzaro assassinated
- 1545 - Silver mine in Potsoi discovered
- 1542 - New laws of Burgos
- 1544 - Las Casas appointed bishopric
Overview:
- little had been set up in the New World under F&I, but under Charles the opportunities provided by it began to be realised, with conquistadors expanding the Spanish empire throughout south America
Aztecs:
- Hernan Cortes led an expedition to Mexico in 1519
- as he travelled through Central America, he converted natives to Christianity using a native translator he took as his mistress
- he marched into Tenochitalan (Aztec capital), but lacking any real resources to take on the Aztec Empire (1.5M people), he was forced to rely heavily on the support of native tribes (Tlaxcalans)
- Cortes was allowed into the capital where he took Montezuma captive and began ruling through him
- after Montezuma’s death, he was forced to retreat, instead putting the city to siege, which proved successful
- he renamed the city ‘Mexico City’ and was appointed governor of Mexico in 1521
- he introduced encomiendas in 1524 which was a system were Spaniards could be given land and the people on it and in return for their labour, he was supposed to teach them Christianity and act as a local government, but there was nothing to enforce this
- the same year the Council of Indies (1524) was set up
- the population crashed from 25M to 3M Mexicans during Charles’ reign due to the mistreatment of natives under this system
- he reserved many for himself and his original allies and this exclusive and self-serving governance led to a falling out with Spain
- Charles sent military forces in 1523 under another commander to continue expansion separate from Cortes
- Cortes return in 1529 and was rewarded with the Order of Santiago and given 23 Encomiendas containing 23,000 vassals
Incas:
- Francisco Pizzaro secured a liscence to conquest Peru in 1529, where he found gold in an earlier adventure
- in 1532 he ventured into new territory in Peru and met up with Atahualpa (leader of Incas) but failed to convert him to Christianity
- notice conversion was a recurring theme with conquistadors as the refusal of Christianity was used to justify any actions taken
- using their superior firepower Spaniards defeated Incans at the Battle of Cajamarca (16th Nov 1532) and Atahualpa was put in a ‘ransom room’ that Pizzaro demanded be filled with Gold and Silver before he would be released
- however, once the room was filled he was executed do to the common soldiers’ demands
- reportedly Pizzaro was against this but pressured into it demonstrating the brutality of the common conquistadors
- Charles also displeased but no punishment given
- in 1533, Pizzaro sacked Cusco (Incan capital) and founded a new capital in 1535
- Pizzaro assassinated in 1541 by a son of a father who he had executed, showing the division within conquistadors
impact on Spain:
- primary impact was financial
- Indies provided a market for Castilian goods (wine, cloth)
- it exported goods such as rubber and pineapple, which Spaniards held a monopoly on
- the crown took one-fifth of bullion imports which it used to secure massive loans from bankers
- this was beneficial short term, but encouraged crown to take unreasonable loans which it later struggled to pay
- during Charles reign, the New World produced:
- 11M ducats for Charles in bullion
- 3.5M ducats seized of contraband
- making total bullion profits 14.5M ducats
- in 1545 a silver mine in Potosi discovered, massively increasing silver imports
- by 1660 Spain had imported enough silver to triple the European silver supplies and also imported 185,000KG of gold
- one downside of new world bullion was inflation
- trade was centred in Seville and at the start of Charles reign, it held a monopoly on the New World, but this was challenged
-1524 foreign merchants were allowed to trade with Indies, largely due to pressure from foreign bankers
- 1526 anyone from Charles’ empire could go the New World (this was revoked 1538
- New World increased social mobility (Cortes went from a hildago to a Marquis)
- concerns over treatment of natives caused religious debate and discourse
- a major individual of the reform was Las Casas, who petitioned Charles for reform
- he was highly responsible for the 1542 new laws of Burgos (abolition of encomienda and Indian slavery)
- in 1544 he was appointed Bishopric in the New World, showing Charles’ favour for his cause
- Seville population rose from 60,000 to 150,000 between 1500-88
Charles economic policy
key dates/figures:
- 1523 - Council of Finance established
- 1534 - at Madrid Cortes, Charles granted principle of encabezamiento
- 1538 - Sisa tax implemented
- the Castilian economy was in a better position to exploit the stimulation of trade and industry from the New World
- numbers employed in the silk and cloth industries rose from 10,000-50,000 between 1525-50
- in 1523, the Exchequer was reorganised and the Council of Finance established to regulate income and expenditure
- Henry of Nassau was appointed chief of finances and Cobos soon dominated this council
- burden of paying for wars was increasingly put on Castile as its Cortes presented little resistance to higher taxation, in Contrast Aragon was already in economic decline and provided little contribution
- at Madrid Cortes of 1534, Charles granted the principle of encabezamiento, which allowed towns to convert the alcabala into a fixed sum
- alcabala amounted to 75% of crown revenue by 1550
- however the value of it declined in real terms, between 1536-53 the yield from the alcabala rose by 21%, but prices rose by 1/3
- Charles derived considerable income from the Church: Clergy taxed by the teraciareales (1/3 of tithes), the subsidio (500,000 ducats in 1551), and the cruzada (121,000 ducats yearly in 1523-54)
- the sales of royal lands, formerly owned by the military orders, produced 1.7M ducats* between 1537-51
- some taxes emerged as a direct response to military pressure, such as the sisa in 1538 which was a tax of foodstuffs
- the role of foreign bankers cannot be overstated: the Fuggers and Welsers supplied 534,000 & 143,000 florins out of the total 850,000 florins spent by Charles
- he continued with the system of juros (fixed sum payed by the Crown in payment of loans) to pay for loans
- as early as 1522, the repayment of loans consumed 36% of normal revenue and by 1543 it had risen to 65%
- during his reign, borrowing came close to 30M ducats and interest payments on loans stood at 10M ducats
- interest charges rose from 18%-49% between the 1520s-1550s
- this increased the influence and control of foreign financiers on the Spanish treasury
- they secured a sufficient stranglehold on the countrys finances that they were allowed to buy offices, lands and juros
- in the **1520s, the Castilian Cortes produced 130,000 ducats yearly, and this increased to 410,000 ducats by the 1550s
- revenue from the New World amounted to 270,000 ducats yearly and represents 20% of crowns income
- Charles reign undoubtedly encountered some major economic problems:
- between 1511-59 the price of wheat doubled and oil tripled
- inflation inevitably led to a fall in living standards
- in Valladolid, wages rose by 30% between 1511-50, yet price of wheat rose by 44% and wine by 64%
- some land rents between 1530-55 rose by 86%
- by the end of his reign, the kingdom was virtually bankrupt
