Female Physiology Flashcards
1
Q
What are the major hormones of the female reproductive system?
A
Estrogens, progesterone, FSH, LH
These hormones play critical roles in regulating the menstrual cycle and reproductive processes.
2
Q
What is the source of progesterone in the female reproductive system?
A
Corpus luteum
Progesterone is primarily produced by the corpus luteum after ovulation.
3
Q
What is the source of estrogen during reproductive years?
A
Ovary (specifically estradiol, E2)
Estradiol is the most potent form of estrogen produced by the ovaries.
4
Q
What regulates the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary?
A
GnRH (Gonadotropin releasing hormone)
GnRH is secreted by the hypothalamus and controls the release of FSH and LH.
5
Q
What does the hypothalamus/pituitary/gonad axis diagram illustrate?
A
Hormonal regulation and feedback mechanisms
This axis involves the interactions between the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonads.
6
Q
What are the stages of the menstrual cycle?
A
Menses, proliferative phase, secretory phase
Each phase corresponds to changes in the endometrium in response to hormonal signals.
7
Q
What initiates the menstrual cycle?
A
Decrease in progesterone levels
A fall in progesterone signals the shedding of the endometrial lining.
8
Q
What is oogenesis?
A
The process of egg cell development
Oogenesis involves several stages of maturation of oocytes within ovarian follicles.
9
Q
What is the role of FSH in the menstrual cycle?
A
Stimulates follicle development
FSH is essential for the growth and maturation of ovarian follicles.
10
Q
What is the purpose of the ovarian cycle?
A
To ovulate one ovum into the oviduct for fertilization
The ovarian cycle includes follicular and luteal phases that prepare for ovulation.
11
Q
Fill in the blank: The menstrual cycle averages about ______ days.
A
28
This average can vary based on individual physiological factors.
12
Q
What happens during the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle?
A
Corpus luteum forms and produces progesterone
This phase prepares the endometrium for potential implantation of a fertilized ovum.
13
Q
What occurs if fertilization does not happen?
A
Corpus luteum regresses, progesterone levels fall, menstruation begins
The decrease in progesterone leads to the shedding of the endometrial lining.
14
Q
True or False: Estrogen levels are highest during the luteal phase.
A
False
Estrogen levels peak just before ovulation.
15
Q
What does the term luteolysis refer to?
A
The breakdown of the corpus luteum
Luteolysis occurs if there is no fertilization, leading to decreased progesterone.
16
Q
What is the function of inhibins?
A
Suppress FSH release
Inhibins are produced by ovarian granulosa cells and play a role in feedback regulation.
17
Q
What is the role of activins?
A
Increase FSH binding in the ovarian follicle
Activins are involved in promoting follicle development.
18
Q
What can occur due to low levels of estrogen after menopause?
A
Increased risk for osteoporosis
Loss of estrogen affects bone density and health.
19
Q
What is the primary function of progesterone during the secretory phase?
A
Prepare the endometrium for implantation
Progesterone helps to develop the uterine lining for potential pregnancy.
20
Q
What triggers ovulation?
A
Surge of LH
The LH surge results from rapid GnRH pulse frequency and leads to the release of the ovum.
21
Q
What is the primary source of estriol during pregnancy?
A
Placenta
Estriol is produced by the placenta and plays a role in pregnancy maintenance.
22
Q
Fill in the blank: The follicular phase begins with ______ and ends with ovulation.
A
Menses
This phase involves the development of ovarian follicles in preparation for ovulation.
23
Q
What is the effect of estrogen on blood vessels?
A
Promotes vasodilation
Estrogen has cardiovascular protective effects, including improving vascular function.
24
Q
What is the role of estrogens in female physiology?
A
Promotes angiogenesis in target tissues, increases hormone-sensitive lipase, upregulates serum binding proteins, promotes proliferation and growth of cells for secondary sexual characteristics
25
What happens to estradiol levels during menopause?
Loss of estradiol increases risk for osteoporosis
26
What is the primary function of progesterone in females?
Functions mainly to prepare the uterus for pregnancy and the breasts for lactation
27
Fill in the blank: Oogenesis occurs in developing _______.
follicle
28
What is the primary purpose of the endometrial cycle?
Store nutrients and make endometrium suitable for implantation
29
What hormonal changes occur during the secretory phase of the endometrial cycle?
Increase in progesterone, fall of estrogen
30
What characterizes primary amenorrhea?
No history of menstruation by age 15 or 3 years after thelarche
31
What is the main characteristic of Turner syndrome?
45, XO with common abnormal characteristics including webbed neck and short stature
32
What happens to primordial follicles from birth to menarche?
Reduces from about 1-2 million to ~300,000
33
Which hormones are involved in the 2 gonadotropin hypothesis?
LH and FSH
34
True or False: Granulosa cells can turn androgens into estrogens.
True
35
What causes hypergonadotropic hypogonadism?
↑FSH, ↓estrogen with lack of folliculogenesis and loss of oocytes
36
What is Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) characterized by?
Chronic high levels of androgens, low FSH, low estradiol, and lack of follicle development
37
Fill in the blank: The dominant follicle produces hormones through the interaction of _______ cells and _______ cells.
theca; granulosa
38
What is the role of the corpus luteum?
Maintains pregnancy if fertilization occurs; otherwise becomes corpus albicans
39
What is the significance of the follicular phase?
Changes from primordial follicle to ovulation
40
What is the clinical consequence of low estradiol in the menstrual cycle?
Lack of endometrial growth and elevated FSH levels
41
What is the relationship between insulin resistance and hormone levels in PCOS?
Increases LH, decreases estrogen
42
What occurs during menses?
Tissue breakdown and bleeding due to lack of fertilization
43
Fill in the blank: If fertilization occurs, _______ II is completed and an ovum is created.
meiosis
44
What is the role of estrogen in the proliferative phase of the endometrial cycle?
Causes proliferation and differentiation of endometrium
45
What is the most likely hormone ratio elevated in a PCOS diagnosis?
LH/FSH
46
What is the function of sex hormone binding globulin?
Systemic transport of sex hormones
47
What happens to the corpus luteum if there is no fertilization?
Becomes fibrotic corpus albicans
48
What are the key events integrated during ovulation, menstrual cycle, and fertilization?
Ovulation, menstrual cycle, fertilization.
49
What are the steps of fertilization?
Capacitation, fusion with ovum, formation of pronuclei.
50
How does hormonal feedback work between the ovary and embryonic cells?
Hormonal feedback maintains pregnancy.
51
What are the steps of implantation?
Apposition, adhesion, invasion.
52
What hormonal changes occur during parturition?
Changes in progesterone and estrogen levels.
53
Define Capacitation.
Biochemical event after ejaculation that aids sperm in penetrating the ovum.
54
What is the role of the Zona Pellucida?
Protects the ovum and is involved in fertilization.
55
What happens during the cortical reaction of the ovum?
Induces a Ca2+ wave to prevent fertilization by additional sperm.
56
What is a blastocyst?
A structure formed in the early development of mammals, consisting of an inner cell mass and trophoblast.
57
When does implantation occur after ovulation?
5-7 days following ovulation.
58
What are decidual cells?
Modified endometrial cells that provide nutrition for the developing embryo.
59
What is the function of syncytiotrophoblasts?
Highly invasive cells that facilitate implantation into the endometrium.
60
What is the role of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)?
Maintains corpus luteum and supports pregnancy.
61
What is the average duration of pregnancy from ovulation?
38 weeks.
62
What are the stages of parturition?
Quiescence, Transformation/Activation, Active labor, Involution.
63
What is the primary hormone that promotes pregnancy?
Progesterone.
64
What triggers the transformation of the myometrium for contractions?
Change in gene expression.
65
Fill in the blank: The blastocyst moves into the _______ cavity after the first several rounds of cell division.
[endometrial]
66
True or False: Ectopic pregnancies most commonly occur in the ampulla of the fallopian tube.
True.
67
What is the significance of decidualization?
Prepares endometrium for implantation.
68
What is the role of prostaglandins in parturition?
Stimulates uterine contractions.
69
What occurs during the effacement stage of labor?
Cervical thinning.
70
What is interstitial implantation?
Complete embedding of the embryo into the endometrium.
71
What is the first mitotic division after fertilization called?
Diploid daughter cells formation.
72
What are the three regions of decidua?
* Decidua basalis
* Decidua capsularis
* Decidua parietalis
73
Which hormone is responsible for cervical remodeling during labor?
Estrogens.
74
What is the average time for the uterus to return to its non-pregnant state after parturition?
~4-5 weeks.
75
What is the effect of oxytocin during labor?
Stimulates uterine contractions.
76
What is the function of MMPs during implantation?
Breakdown of matrix to allow syncytiotrophoblast invasion.
77
Fill in the blank: The corpus luteum grows to provide _______ and estrogen to maintain pregnancy.
[progesterone]
78
What is the role of the trophoblast in early pregnancy?
Digestion and absorption of nutrients from endometrial decidua.
79
T or F: ovulation happens at the very beginning of the luteal phase
True
80
What hormones are the most dominant during the follicular/proliferative phase?
FSH (prevents degradation of primary follicles)
Estrogen (promotes secretion of intrauterine GFs)
81
T or F: in the earliest stages of the follicular phase, everything is low
False
GnRH increases due to loss of negative feedback loop b/t hypothalamus and estrogen (very low at this phase)
82
Surviving primary follicles increase production of this hormone?
E2
83
what stimulates the first LH surge at the end of the follicular phase
Maximum concentration of E2 signals the hypothalamus that the follicle is ready for ovulation
this initiates a GnRH surge that in turn triggers LH surges
84
what is the role of LH during the follicular phase?
Oocyte maturation and Ovulation
85
When does the primary oocyte become the secondary oocyte?
after the 1st meiotic division
(mediated by LH)
86
once the oocyte is released, what happens to the remaining follicle>
transforms into the corpus luteum
87
what is the role of the corpus luteum during the luteal/secretory phase?
secretes progesterone which provides negative feedback to reduce GnRH pulse frequency
88
what is happening to the endometrium during the follicular phase?
E2 levels increase and the endometrial tissues start to proliferate
89
T or F: both E2 and progesterone decrease if hCG to maintain the corpus luteum is abscent
Yes
FSH then increases to start the next ovulation cycle while menses is occuring
90
what is happening to the endometrium during the luteal phase?
luteinization of mural granulosa and theca cells prepares the endometrium for implantation
91
what happens to the predecidual cells if fertilization has occurred and if it hasn't
these cells help break down the endometrium at menstruation if fertilization does NOT occur
if fertilization does occur, they become decidual cells that help support the trophoblast and keep it from invading the myometrium
92
What is the major source of estrogen postmenopause
adipose tissues
93
theca cells contain this enzyme.
17alpha-hydroxylase
94
granulosa cells contain this enzyme.
aromatase
95
what effects does estrogen have on the liver
increased production of LDL receptors (decreases LDL)
increases circulating HDL
96
what effect/s does progesterone have in the CNS?
increases set-point thermoregulation which slightly increases basal body temp.
97
T or F: primary oocytes are arrested in meiosis II.
False
primary oocytes are arrested in prophase I until stimulated by LH to complete meiosis I
98
At what meiotic stage does the primary oocyte become the secondary oocyte?
metaphase II
(it will be arrested in this stage for the rest of its life if fertilization does not occur)
99
at what point does the dominant primary follicle become a secondary follicle?
when it develops a fluid-filled cavity called the antrum
100
what cells within the primary follicles produce the antrum?
inner granulosa cells
101
LH stimulates the outer theca cells to make what?
androgens and progesterone
102
T or F: LH stimulates the inner granulosa cells to make estrogen from testosterone
false
granulosa cells respond to FSH which stimulates conversation of testosterone to estrogen
103
what is another name for the tertiary follicle?
Graafian
104
describe the pathogenesis of PCOS.
over-stimulation of 17-hydroxyprogesterone increases levels of androgens
105
what effect does hyperinsulinemia have on reproductive hormones?
increased LH
decreases estrogen
106
what androgen contributes to PCOS induced obesity?
estrone: an androgen that gets converted to adipose tissue due to excess androgen productioN
107
What is another name for primary ovarian insufficiency?
hypergonadotropic hypogonadism
lack of folliculogenesis and loss of oocytes
108
what stimulates the secondary oocyte to complete meiosis II?
spermatozoon penetration
109
how is polyspermy prevented?
zona reaction induces release of granules that contain hydrolytic enzymes and polysaccharides that alter the zona pellucida
110
at what point does the zygote become the blastocyst
once in the uterus, the zona pellucida breaks down and the blastocyst hatches
the process of implantation can then begin
111
at what point does the blastocyst become the trophoblast?
after the blastocyte adheres to the uterine wall
112
the trophoblast differentiates into these 2 cell types
cytotrophoblasts
syncytiotrophoblasts
113
decidal cells secrete these nutrients.
cholesterol
steroids
iron
fat-soluble vitamins
114
T or F: syncytiotrophoblasts guide the trophoblast into the endometrium.
True
via cadherins and integrins
115
syncytiotrophoblasts also produce this hormone to maintain the corpus luteum and pregnancy
hCG
116
syncytiotrophoblast will differentiate to form what embryologic structure?
placenta
117
what are syncytiotrophoblasts doing in an ectopic pregnancy
invades the myometrium leading to postnatal hemorrhage as these cells are highly invasive
118
expulsion of uterine contents requires what 3 things to happen
myometrium transformation
cervix remodeling
fetal membrane rupture
119
what happens during the quiescence phase of parturition?
uterus is relaxed and insensitive to prostaglandins and oxytocin which allows the fetus to grow inside the uterus
120
what occurs during the transformation/activation stage of parturition
myometrium transformation to prepare for contractions
121
what happens during the involution stage of parturition
contractions restrict blood vessels returning uterus to a nonpregnant state
122
what hormone increases responsiveness to prostaglandins and oxytocin
estrogens
123
what role do prostaglandins play in the active labor stage of parturition
effacement of cervix stimulates release of oxytocin to promote further contractions
124
What is the main hormone detected in pregnancy tests?
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
## Footnote
hCG is produced by the placental syncytiotrophoblast and levels increase shortly after implantation.
125
What is the primary function of hCG during early pregnancy?
to prevent involution of the corpus luteum
## Footnote
The corpus luteum is the principal site of progesterone formation during the first 6-12 weeks of pregnancy.
126
How much does the uterus weigh at term compared to a nonpregnant state?
Nonpregnant uterus weighs approx. 70 gm; at term, it weighs 1100 gm.
127
What changes occur to uterine cavity capacity during pregnancy?
Increases from 10 ml or less to 5 L - 20 L or more.
128
What happens to uterine blood flow during pregnancy?
Increases from approximately 450 mL/min to nearly 500 to 750 mL/min at 36 weeks' gestation.
129
What is the role of relaxin during pregnancy?
Aids in remodeling of reproductive-tract connective tissue and initiates renal hemodynamics.
130
What metabolic change occurs in the basal metabolic rate by the third trimester?
20% increase in basal metabolic rate.
131
What is the average weight gain during pregnancy?
Approx. 12.5 kg (27.5 lb).
132
Fill in the blank: Water retention during pregnancy is mediated by a drop in plasma osmolality due to a reset of osmotic thresholds for _______.
thirst and vasopressin.
133
What is a significant change in protein metabolism during pregnancy?
The fetus, placenta, uterus, and maternal blood are richer in protein than fat or carbohydrate.
134
What characterizes carbohydrate metabolism in normal pregnancy?
Fasting hypoglycemia, postprandial hyperglycemia, and hyperinsulinemia.
135
What happens to serum calcium levels during pregnancy?
Total serum calcium levels decrease.
136
What is the increase in blood volume during pregnancy?
Blood volume increases by 30 – 50%.
137
What is the physiological consequence of increased plasma volume during pregnancy?
Physiologic anemia of pregnancy.
138
True or False: Pregnancy is a hypercoagulable state.
True.
139
What happens to heart rate during pregnancy?
Increases by 5 – 15%.
140
What physiological change occurs to blood pressure from late first trimester to the middle of the second trimester?
Systolic BP decreases by approx. 4 mm Hg and diastolic BP decreases by approx. 10-15 mm Hg.
141
What is the purpose of the immunoglobulin-rich cervical mucus plug?
Creates a barrier to ascending infection.
142
What happens to the corpus luteum during pregnancy?
Ovulation ceases and maturation of new follicles is suspended.
143
How does the fetal skeleton impact maternal calcium homeostasis?
Imposes significant demand on maternal calcium homeostasis.
144
What is the typical increase in leukocyte counts during pregnancy?
Leukocyte counts approach 15,000 and can rise to >25,000 in labor.
145
What happens to the stroke volume during pregnancy?
Increases by 20 – 35%.
146
What is the effect of pregnancy on the coagulation factors?
Coagulation factors I, II, VII, IX & X are increased due to increased hepatic synthesis.
147
What is a key feature of maternal fat metabolism during late pregnancy?
Maternal hyperlipidemia is a constant change due to increased insulin resistance.
148
What is the role of hepcidin during pregnancy?
Allows greater absorption of iron via ferroportin.
149
What is the percentage increase in heart rate during pregnancy?
5 – 15 %
## Footnote
Heart rate maximizes at term.
150
By what percentage does stroke volume increase during pregnancy?
20 – 35 %
## Footnote
Stroke volume maximizes during the 2nd trimester.
151
What is the increase in cardiac output during pregnancy?
35 – 45 %
## Footnote
Cardiac output maximizes at 20 – 24 weeks and further increases up to 40 % during the second stage of labor.
152
What changes in heart sounds are commonly observed during pregnancy?
Splitting of S1; Louder S1, S2; Loud S3; Late systolic and ejection murmurs.
153
What percentage of cardiac output goes to the uterus at term?
20% (approx 500 mL/min)
## Footnote
In the non-pregnant state, approximately 1% goes to the uterus.
154
What condition can result from vena cava compression during pregnancy?
Supine hypotensive syndrome
## Footnote
It can cause nausea, dizziness, and syncope.
155
What are the consequences of increased venous pressure proximal to the area of compression?
* Worsening varicose veins in the legs and vulva
* Increased lower extremity edema
* Decreased venous flow contributing to increased risk of thrombosis in pregnancy.
156
How does tidal volume change during pregnancy?
Increased up to 40%.
157
What happens to functional residual capacity during pregnancy?
Decreases by 20-30%.
158
What is the effect of pregnancy on serum concentrations of BUN, creatinine, and uric acid?
Decreases due to increased excretion secondary to increased GFR.
159
What urinary change is associated with increased GFR and impaired tubular reabsorption capacity?
Glucosuria, proteinuria.
160
What factors contribute to the increased incidence of pyelonephritis during pregnancy?
Progesterone-mediated laxity of ureteral smooth muscle leading to inhibition of peristalsis in the ureter.
161
What effect does the enlarging uterus have on bladder capacity?
Reduces bladder capacity, leading to increased frequency and incontinence.
162
What happens to the size of the kidney during pregnancy?
Grows approximately 1.0 cm.
163
What is the effect of pregnancy on glomerular filtration rate (GFR)?
Increases by approximately 40 – 50%.
164
What happens to serum osmolality during normal gestation?
Decreases by 10 mOsm/L.
165
How does progesterone affect gastrointestinal function during pregnancy?
Inhibits smooth muscle peristalsis, leading to delayed gastric emptying, reflux esophagitis, and constipation.
166
What is the effect of pregnancy on thyroid function tests?
Thyroid binding globulin is increased, reflecting in low thyroid uptake, with elevated total T4 and T3.
167
How does pregnancy affect blood coagulation?
Hypercoagulable state with increased fibrinogen and D-dimer.
168
What ethical dilemmas are common in obstetrics and gynecology?
Issues related to embryos, fetuses, birth, contraception, and cancer.
169
What is a critical aspect of dealing with ethical dilemmas in obstetrics?
Providers must promote the well-being of patients while managing personal biases.
170
What is the importance of education in ethical decision-making for doctors?
It should start early in training and receive constant reinforcement.
171
True or False: Pregnancy is considered an illness.
False
## Footnote
Pregnancy is a healthy condition, not an illness.
172
What physiological change occurs in the central nervous system during pregnancy?
Mean blood flow in the middle and posterior cerebral arteries declines.
173
What is the normal change in hemoglobin/hematocrit levels during pregnancy?
Decreases due to hemodilution.
174
What is the expected renal change related to urine flow in pregnancy?
Hydroureter and urostasis due to pressure from the enlarging uterus.
175
when does hCG peak?
50-75 days after implantation
176
Quantitative assays of hCG are used to assess what?
ectopic pregnancy
molar pregnancy
threatened miscarriage
missed spontaneous miscarriage
177
relaxin is secreted via what organs?
the corpus luteum, decidua, & the placenta
178
what is the significant of the difference b/t the maternal and umbilical osmolaity?
lower maternal serum osmolality favors water transport to the fetus
179
T or F: pitting edema during pregnancy results from a decline in interstitial colloid osmotic pressure
true
180
what is the minimum amount of extra water accrued during normal pregnancy?
6.5 L (almost 15 Ibs.)
181
what is the physiological significance of maternal hyperinsulinemia?
increased insulin resistance promotes the uptake of glucose into the fetal rather than the mother's own tissues
182
what is the primary energy used to support the mother?
lipids
this allows glucose and amino acids for the growing fetus
183
what is the physiologic consequence of expanded plasma volume throughout pregnancy?
this lowers the threshold for ADH to favor increased free water retention and diminish sodium levels
184
intestinal absorption of what mineral is doubled throughout pregancny?
calcium
185
greater thyroid hormone production during pregnancy requires an increase of what mineral
Iodine
186
fetal ferroportin is secreted by what cells
syncytiotrophoblasts
187
T or F: A decrease in the hematocrit during pregnancy is due to a decrease in RBCs
false
RBC count does not decrease at all during pregnancy
It actually peaks in the late 2nd and beginning 3rd trimesters
hemodilution is what contributes to the decreased hematocrit and Hgb
188
why are tests used to diagnose inflammation of a newborn not reliable?
b/c WBC count naturally increases at the end of gestation
189
T or F: at the end of gestation B-lymphocytes increases while T-lymphocytes remain unchanged.
false
it is the other way around
190
T or F: pulmonary embolism is the #1 leading cause of Maternal mortality
false
it ranks 2nd after hemorrhage
191
during pregnancy the resting pulse rate rises by how much?
10bpm
192
T or F: BP Values at Term will be much higher than those of pre-pregnancy
true
193
Elevation of the diaphragm throughout pregnancy results in rotation and elevation of the heart about its longitudinal axis. How would this change present on an EKG and radiography?
left axis deviation
CXR: will appear to be cardiomegaly
194
what happens to cardiac output for Vena Cava compression?
it decreases to compensate for decreased venous return
195
T or F: respiration rate increases as pregnancy progresses
false
remains relatively unchanged and may be slightly increased
196
T or F: Total lung capacity does not change throughout pregnancy
true
197
what causes FRC and RV to decrease throughout pregnancy?
enlarging uterus and elevation of the diaphragm
198
decreased ER will cause what to increase?
the TV
199
what are the overall physiologic consequences of Respiration during pregnancy?
O2 demand exceeds oxygen delivery which can result in physiologic dyspnea & respiratory alkalosis
200
What factors contribute to the higher risk of developing cystitis during pregnancy?
pressure of the enlarging uterus causes urostasis and a hydroureter
201
A decrease in the osmotic threshold for AVP release can cause what transient effect?
diabetes insipidus
202
Should you be concerned for a pregie if their urine dipstick detects protein and glucose?
No
increased AA and glucose excretion is a natural physiologic change of pregnancy
203
An ABG done on a pregnancy pt. would reveal what acid-base changes?
respiratory alkalosis w/ metabolic compensation (decreased bicarb levels)
204
what hormone is responsible for regulating the respiratory center during pregnancy?
progesterone
205
T or F: Hydronephrosis detected on sonogram of a pregie may be an indication of an underlying pregnancy complication.
false
kidney dilation is a natural physiological change that occurs throughout pregnancy
Kidney size will naturally shrink back to its normal size 12 weeks postpartum
206
If appendicitis is suspected for a pregie, where on the abdomen should the physician assess McBurney's point?
Upper RLQ
207
hyperlipidemia of pregnancy can lead to what GI complications?
cholelithiasis
cholecystitis
pancreatitis
208
during pregnancy, progesterone inhibits SM peristalsis of the GI tract. What are the physiologic consequences of this?
delayed gastric emptying
constipation
reflux esophagitis
209
how does pregnancy affect maternal thyroid function?
should remain unchanged
210
why might a thyroid panel of a pregie w/ no true thyroid dysfunction show elevated T3 & T4?
T3 & T4 levels are dependent on how many of each is bound to TBG
B/c TBG production is increased during pregnancy, the thyroid panel will show T3 & T4 levels to be elevated
211
What hormone is responsible for excess hepatic production of TBG for pregnancy?
estrogen
212
what is the role of human placental lactogen?
secreted by syncytiotrophoblasts
this hormone antagonizes the effects of insulin by enhancing lipolysis
213
T or F: Bun & creatinine are increased during pregnancy due to increased renal blood flow
true
214
A liver function test of a pregie would reveal what?
increased ALP
decreased AST & ALT
215
T or F: albumin decreases during pregnancy
false
it decreases due to plasma dilution
