Family and Households Flashcards
1
Q
What is a household?
A
A person or a group of people living together, who may or may not be related.
2
Q
What is a family?
A
An institution made up of a group of people who are related through kinship: blood, marriage, adoption or civil partnership.
3
Q
Domestic division of labour
The Husbands Role?
Parsons (functionalist)
A
The husband has the instrumental role, achieving success at work so he can provide money for the family. he is the breadwinner.
4
Q
The domestic division of labour
The wife’s role?
Parsons (functionalist)
A
The wife has the expressive role, undertaking primary socialisation and meeting the family’s emotional needs. she is the homemaker and a full-time house wife.
5
Q
What are segregated conjugal roles?
Functionalist view- Elizabeth Bott
A
The couple have separated roles, and do not spend leisure time together.
6
Q
What are joint conjugal roles?
Functionalist view- Elizabeth Bott
A
The couple share tasks, such as housework and childcare, and they spend their leisure time together.
7
Q
What is a symmetrical family?
Young and Willmott (functionalists)
A
Roles of men and women are now much more similar.
8
Q
Why have symmetrical family’s become more popular?
Young and Willmott (functionalists)
A
Changes in women’s position (working)
Geographical mobility (more couples living away from the communities where they grew up means they are more dependent on their partners)
New technology
Higher standards of living
(Married women working means more income therefore higher standard of living- these are interlinked)
9
Q
Feminist view of housework
A
Feminists believe little has changed, men and women remain unequal, women still do most of the housework. They believe society and households are patriarchal. They do not believe in the ‘march of progress’ view.
10
Q
Are couples becoming more equal?
The march of progress view
Young and Willmott
A
They believe women going to work is leading to a more equal division of labour at home. Men are becoming more involved in housework and childcare, and women are involved in work outside the home.
11
Q
A feminist view
Are couples becoming more equal?
A
They believe that women going into paid work has not led to greater equality in the division of domestic labour. There are still little signs of the ‘New Man’ who carries out equal housework and childcare.
12
Q
Dual Burden
Feminist view
Oakley
A
A dual burden is when women have to do paid work, and also help with housework, such as chores and childcare.
13
Q
Triple Shift
Feminist view
Ansley
A
Triple shift is when the woman have to undergo paid work, housework and emotional work. Emotional work incudes managing the emotions of family members, for example the husband had a hard day at work or the child is being bullied at school. At this point, women are also known as the ‘Takers Of Shit’.
14
Q
What is domestic violence?
A
Any incident or pattern of incidents of controlling, coercive, or threatening behaviour, violence or abuse
15
Q
Types of domestic violence and abuse
A
Physical, psychological, sexual, financial, and emotional
16
Q
Radical feminist explanation of domestic violence or abuse
A
See family and marriage as key parts in patriarchal society and the main source of women’s oppression. Within the family, radical feminists believe that men dominate women through domestic abuse or the threat of it.
17
Q
Critiques of the radical feminist view of domestic violence
A
Radical feminists fail to explain female violence, including child abuse by women and violence against male partners and within lesbian relationships.
Radical feminists use patriarchy to explain why most victims are women, but they assume all women are at equal risk of patriarchal violence. They fail to explain which women are most likely to be victims
18
Q
The materialist explanation of domestic violence and abuse
A
Focuses on economic and material factors such as inequalities in income and housing to explain why some people are more at risk. They see it as a result of stress caused by social inequality.
19
Q
How can inequality cause stress and thus domestic abuse and violence?
A
Worries about money, jobs, housing cause tempers to rise and lack of money and time restricts peoples social circle and reduces the social support for those under financial support
20
Q
Criticisms of the materialist explanation of domestic violence and abuse
A
They do not explain why women are more likely to be the main victims.
Marxists feminists see inequality causing domestic violence, and women become ‘takers of shit’. Domestic violence is the product of capitalism as males are exploited at work and take our their frustration on their wives, which fails to explain why not all male workers abuse wives, and doesn’t take account reports of violent women.
21
Q
Define socially constructed
A
Something that is created and defined by society
22
Q
Separateness from children and adults
Modern Western childhood
Pilcher
A
Childhood is a clear life stage with a status from adults. There are laws regulating what children aren’t allowed (alcohol), what is required and what they are forbidden to do. The way they dress, toys, books, food, play areas.
23
Q
What is the ‘Golden age’ of happiness and innocence
A
Children are seen as vulnerable and in need of protection from e dangers of the adult world. They are ‘quarantined’ and separate from it. Adults provide for them and protect them. Children lead lives of leisure and play and are excluded from paid work
24
Q
Has the position of children changed?
The march of progress view
Aries and Shorter
A
The position of children has improved and is better than it has ever been. Children are more valued, better cared for, protected, educated, healthier, and have more rights.
25
How are children today protected by laws?
March of progress view
Aries and Shorter
Children are protected from harm and exploitation by laws against child abuse and child labour. The government spends huge sums on compulsory education for children
26
The child centered family
March of progress view
Aries and Shorter
Higher standards of living and smaller family sizes lead to more parents being able to afford to provide for child's needs properly. They believe that children have become the main focal point of the family as parents invest a great deal into their children emotionally and financially. Parents have high aspirations for their children to have a better life and greater opportunities.
27
Toxic childhood
March of progress view
Palmer
Rapid technological and cultural improvement means damage for child's physical, emotional and intellectual development (video games, junk food, exams, intensive marketing).
28
Concerns about children's health and behavior
Toxic childhood
March of progress view
Palmer
Increasing obesity, self harm, teen pregnancies, early sexual experiences, drug and alcohol abuse and violence of children
29
Has the position of childhood improved?
The conflict view (Marxist and feminist)
In society, there are inequalities among children, and inequalities between children and adults (children experience control, oppression and dependency)
30
Inequalities among children
Gender differences
The conflict view
Boys are more likely to be allowed to cycle on roads, cross roads, go on buses, and go out at night unaccompanied. Girls do more domestic labour and do 5x more housework than boys- restricted to the home.
31
Inequalities among children
Ethnic differences
The conflict view
Asian parents are more likely to be strict towards their daughters. Family honour can be used as a restriction towards the behavior of girls
32
Inequalities among children
Class inequalities
The conflict view
Poor children are more likely to have a delay in physical and intellectual development.
Poorer families are more likely to die in childhood (illnesses, shorter in height, fall behind at school, put on child protection register)
33
Inequalities between children and adult
The conflict view
Child protection from paid work is not a benefit but a form of inequality. Makes Children more dependent, powerless, subject to adult control.
34
Inequalities between adults and children
Neglect and Abuse
The conflict view
Adults control children through the use of physical neglect, or physical, sexual, or emotional abuse. Childline receives 20,000 calls a year from children- these figures show a 'dark side' to family life
35
Controls over children's space
Conflict between A + C
Conflict view
Children's movement are highly regulated. They are told to play i some areas (parks) but are forbidden in others (pubs 18+ areas). There is increasing surveillance over children in public spaces (shopping centers).
Children are getting driven to school due to stranger danger and road safety- lack of independency
36
Controls over children's time
Conflict between A + C
The conflict view
Daily routines, bedtimes, curfews- control the speed of them growing up. Too young or too old for that activity, responsibility or behaviour.
37
Control over children's access to resources
Conflict between A + C
The conflict view
Children have limited opportunities to earn money. Children have compulsory schooling, child benefits goes to adults not children, pocket money may be given but limits on what it can be spent on
38
Control over children's bodies
Conflict between A + C
The conflict view
Adults control the way children dress, hairstyles, walk, sit, run, ears pierced, tattoos, cuddled, kissed, smacked. Children are told not to pick their nose, suck their thumb and touch their genitals.
39
Explain the disappearance of childhood
Postman
Postman argues that childhood is disappearing because children are becoming more like adults: same rights as adults, similar clothing, children committing adult crimes (drug runners, murder).
40
According to Postman, what is the cause of the disappearance of childhood?
Television culture
41
What is the information hierarchy?
Postman
A division between adults who can read and children who can’t read
42
What did the information hierarchy give to adults?
Postman
POWER to keep knowledge about sex, money, violence, illness, death and other adult matters a secret from children
43
How does TV culture destroy the information hierarchy?
Postman
Blurs the distinction between adulthood and childhood because the media does not require practical skills to access it
44
Evaluation of postman’s view
Opie believes that childhood has not disappeared and that Postman over-emphasised a single cause (tv) at the expense of other factors that have influenced the development of childhood.
45
Age patriarchy
Childhood
Gittins
Describes inequalities between adults and children, the domination of adults over children.
46
‘Acting up’
childhood
Hockey and James
Children act up (acting like adults) as a strategy to resist adult control. Acting like an adult and doing things they aren’t supposed to (swearing, alcohol, smoking, drugs, sex) Children may exaggerate their age (“Im ‘nearly’ 10”)
47
‘Acting down’
childhood
Hockey and James
Strategy to resist adult control. Using baby talk and asking to be carried (piggy back). Modern childhood is a status which children want to escape from
48
Critiques of the liberationist view of conflict between children and adults
Although children are under adult supervision, they are not completely powerless (Children’s Act gives children rights)
49
Historical differences in childhood- Middle Ages
Aries
In the middle ages, children were seen as 'mini adults', childhood did not exist, they entered wider society at a young age. They faced the same punishment as adults, dressed similarly and worked together.
50
Parental attitudes in the middle ages
Shorter
high death rates encouraged neglect (newborn baby gets same name as dead sibling). Parents refer to children as 'it' and forget how many children they had had
51
The modern cult of childhood, how has childhood improved since the middle ages?
Aries
Aries argues childhood has developed due to schools specialising in teaching children, growing difference in adult and child clothing, and handbooks about childrearing became popular (growing child centred)
52
Critiques of Aries
Pollock argues in the middle ages, society simply had a different notion of childhood than today
53
How did laws restricting child labour encourage a change in child's position?
Children become financially dependent on parents
54
How did compulsory schooling change the position of children?
Raising the school-leaving age extends the period of dependence of children, became reliant on parents financially
55
How does growing children's rights lead to a change in child's position?
Parents have responsibilities, not rights. Children are entitled to free healthcare and education, protection from abuse, right to participate in decisions which involve them
56
How does declining family size change the child's position?
Childcentredness- Encourages parents to have a greater financial and emotional investment in the fewer children they have and pay more attention.
57
How does laws applying to children affect their position?
For example, no sex or smoking until 18, show that children are different from adults
58
What is industrialisation?
Shift from agriculture to factory production
59
How does industrialisation change the position of children?
modern industry needs an educated workforce, therefore children are put into compulsory education
60
Children in Postmodernity
Jenks
Jenks argues childhood is changing into postmodernity, where relationships are becoming unstable (divorce rates increasing). Parents feel insecure and fear for their children (possible divorces, abuse), meaning a greater surveillance of children's lives.
61
Criticisms of Jenks
Limited evidence. Some evidence shows parents are very concerned about child's risk. Jenks is over-generalising and implies that all children are in the same position
62
The child's point of view
Tipper and Mason
Found that children actively create their own definitions of who is family
63
What are the roles of the family in Murdock's view?
Functionalist
1) stable satisfaction of the sex drive
2) reproduction
3) socialisation of the young
4) meeting economic needs (food and shelter)
64
Criticisms of Murdock perspective of the family
Marxists and Feminists argue that his view neglects conflict and exploitation.
Does not take into account homosexual relationship (unable to reproduce) or couples who do not want to reproduce
65
What is Parson's functional fit theory?
the nuclear family fits into modern industrial society because the family is more geographically and socially mobile (move for your job, gain rewards through own efforts)
66
What society does the nuclear family fit into? (the dominant type of family)
Parsons
Modern Industrial society
67
What society does the extended family fit into?
Traditional pre-industrial society
68
What are the 2 needs of industrial society?
Parsons
Geographical mobile workforce
and
A socially mobile workforce
69
Explain a geographical mobile workforce
Parsons
Traditional pre industrial= live in the same village
Modern industrial= requires people to move to where their jobs are
70
Explain a socially mobile workforce
Parsons
Modern industrial= requires a skilled, technically competent workforce, win promotions, status is achieved which makes social mobility possible
71
What is the warm bath theory?
Parsons
Family is a safe place for comfort and relaxation
72
What are the functions of the family from a Marxist perspective?
Inheritance of property, ideological functions and unit of consumption
73
Explain inheritance of property
Engels
Monogamy is essential to ensure their children are legitimate heirs from them, so that the heirs will inherit property
74
Ideological functions in the family
Marxist perspective
Socialising children into believing the idea of hierarchy and inequality is inevitable. Parent's control over children shows them that there will always someone in charge (male), easily exploited in the working life
75
Illusion of 'haven' in the family
Marxist-Zaretsky
Family offers apparent haven from the exploitation of capitalism and workers can 'be themselves'.
76
Explain how the family acts as a unit of consumption in Marxist view?
Theories of the family
Family plays a massive role in generating profits for capitalist society, by
- advertisers urge families to 'keep up with the joneses' by buying the latest products
- media targets children to persuade parents to spend more
- children who lack the latest clothes or gadgets are mocked by peers (leads to underachievement/labelling/ nike identities)
77
Criticisms of the Marxist perspective of family
Feminists argue they dont take into account the gender inequality within families, functionalism says they ignore the benefits that the family provides (too negative), and marxists assume the nuclear family dominate capitalist society (doesnt take other family types into account)
78
What are the 2 irreducible functions of the family according to Parsons
-primary socialisation of children (teach basic skills and society's values, integrate kids into society)
- stabilisation of adult personalities (place to relax and release tensions, return to work refreshed and ready to meet work's needs)
79
Liberal feminist perspective of the family
Women's oppression is gradually improving due to change in people's attitudes and changing laws (Sex discrimination Act). They believe there is still much more change needed to have full equity.
80
Examples of gradual equality according to Liberal feminists
Men are doing more domestic labour and parents socialise their sons and daughters the same
81
Criticisms of Liberal feminist theory of the family
fail to challenge the causes of women's oppression and believing that change to attitudes and laws will be enough
82
What do Marxists feminist think is the cause of women's oppression?
Capitalism
83
What are the 3 things women's oppression performs for capitalism?
Reproduce labour force, absorb anger, reserve army
84
Explain how women's oppression reproduces a labour force according to Marxist feminists
Women reproduce the labour force by socialising the next generation of workers into exploited work
85
Explain how women absorbs anger to help capitalism according to Marxist Feminists?
Women absorb the anger of their husbands as a result of them being exploited at work, they are 'takers of shit'. This also explains male violence against women
86
Explain how women help capitalism by being a reserve army according to Marxist Feminists
Women are a reserve army that are taken on only when needed, and are let go when they aren't. They are 'back up'.
87
What do radical feminists believe society has been founded on?
Patriarchy
Male dominated societies and institutions
88
What is the main division in society according to radical feminists?
Division between men and women
89
what is the radical feminists view of the family?
Men are the enemy and are the source of women's possession
And
The family and marriage are the main institutions which men benefit from (women's unpaid domestic labour, sexual services, dominate women through domestic violence and sexual violence or the threat of it
90
What is the radical feminists solution to women's oppression in the family?
Separatism
91
What is separatism?
Radical feminists
Women must live independently from men to prevent oppression
92
What is political lesbianism?
Radical feminists want rid of heterosexual relationships (cause of women's oppression) as it involves 'sleeping with the enemy'.
93
What does Greer suggest is the solution to women's oppression? Radical Feminism
All female (matrilocal) households
94
Criticisms of radical feminist theory of the family
Liberal feminists argue they fail to recognise women's position has improved considerably (access to divorce, job opportunities, control over fertility, and decision to marry or cohabit.
95
What is the intersectional feminists view of the family?
We cannot generalise women's experiences, it is not universal. Lesbian/heterosexual white/black and WC/MC have different experiences
96
Intersectional feminsts example of differences in women's experience
For example, White feminists neglect Black women's experience of racial oppression
97
Criticisms of intersectional feminist view of the family?
Neglects the fact all women share many of the same experiences (low pay, domestic violence, sexual assault)
98
What is the personal life perspective of the family?
People have more choice in creating family relationships (lesbian/gay/straight), focus on the meaning members give to relationships, not the family’s supposed functions (gender roles etc)
99
What are the different kind of relationships in the personal life perspective?
Relationship with friends, fictive kin (mums friend is an “auntie”), gay and lesbian chosen families, dead relatives, and pets
100
Doner conceived children
Nordqvist and Smart- personal life perspective
Emphasises the importance of social relationships over genetic relationships in forming family bonds, arguments whether “doner siblings” count as family for the child
101
Smart- shaping the modern family
Personal life perspective
Me Vs I, Life projects and personal biography, public Vs private spheres and choice and diversity
102
Smart- shaping the modern family PLP
Me vs I
Me= how I am shaped
I= how I shape others
103
Smart- shaping the modern family PLP
Life projects and personal biography
Dreams and life goals, we cannot shape our personal biography (death, divorce etc)
104
Smart- shaping the modern family PLP
Public vs private spheres
Public = external (pub, work)
Private = internal (dark side of the family)
105
Smart- shaping the modern family PLP
Choices and diversity
People have more choice (sexuality), people are able to filter out what they want (eg- don’t want to date a man, old, have kids etc) FILTER THEORY
106
Evaluation of the personal life perspective of the family
The view is too broad, ignores what is special about relationships that are based on blood or marriage.
Relatedness is not always positive (abuse, violence, unhappiness, hurt, lack of respect)
107
Postmodernist perspective of the family
There are now different types of families (more freedoms in sexuality, divorce, etc)
108
Needs based families
Giddens- postmodernist
Families constantly change to meet the members needs
109
Negotiated family
Beck- postmodernist
Do not conform the the traditional family norms, families instead vary to meet the expectations of their members (“step dad” of “mums boyfriend”?)
110
Family is “ambiguous and fluid”
Stacy- postmodernist
Family constantly adapts and changes, it is not universal
111
Evaluation of the postmodernist view of the family
Leech argues family is a “cereal packet”, where family is made up of white mum and dad, with white kids.
Smart argues that families tend to mirror other family’s of close families (get married when your friends do)- the connectedness thesis
112
what is demography?
the study of populations and their characteristics
113
what is birth rate?
the number of live births per thousand of the population per year
114
what are baby booms?
an increase in the birth rate due to end of world war 1, 2 and in the 1960's
115
define total fertility rate?
the average number of children women will have during their fertile years
116
why did the total fertility rate fall?
more women are remaining childless, or are postponing pregnancy (older women are less fertile, so the more they wait, the less children they will have)
117
What are the 4 reasons for the decline in birth rate?
change in womens position, decline in infant mortality rate, children are now an economic liability, and child centeredness
118
Explain how a change in women's position leads to a decline in birth rate
Increased educational opportunities (uni) so women are spending more time in education, more women are in paid employment so don't have time for children, access to abortion and contraceptives means women have control over their fertility
119
What does Harper say is the most important change in women's position which decreased birth rate?
education of women because they have a change of mindset which results in fewer children, and many are choosing to postpone childbearing or to have no children at all, to pursue a career
120
what is the infant mortality rate?
the number of infants who die before their first birthday, per thousand of babies who are born alive per year
121
what are the reasons for the decline in infant mortality rate?
Due to better sanitation, housing, hygiene, nutrition etc, the IMR decreased, hence less babies were dying, so the birth rate was increasing
122
Why does Harper think the IMR influences a decline in birth rate?
When parents experience a loss, they replace them with others (increase in birth rate), hence if infants survive, they are not replaced, decreasing the birth rate
123
Explain how the birth rate declined due to children now being a economic liability
Laws banning child labour and policies for compulsory schooling meant children had to be financially dependent on their parents, and changing norms meant the cost of bringing up a child has increased. These financial pressures meant people felt less able or willing to have (many) children
124
Explain how child centeredness lead to a decline in the birth rate?
Increasing child centeredness encouraged "quality over quantity", where parents now have fewer children to pay more attention to the few they have
125
how is the family impacted by changes in fertility and birth rates?
Demography
Smaller families mean that women are more likely to be free to go out to work, meaning households become dual earners
126
how is the dependency ratio impacted by the changes in fertility?
Fewer babies being born means fewer young adults and smaller working population so the burden of dependency increases
127
what does the increasing dependency ratio do to childhood?
vanishing children means a lonelier childhood due to lack of siblings
128
how does changes in fertility impact public services and policies?
fewer schools and maternity and child health services may be needed
129
define death rate
the amount of deaths per 1000 people per year
130
how does improved nutrition lead to a decline in death rate
McKeown
Better nutrition means more resistance to infection and increased survival chances
131
Critique of McKeown better nutrition for falling death rate
fails to explain why deaths from diseases (measles and diarrohoea) actually rose when nutrition was improving
132
how does medical improvements lead to a decline in death rate
immproved medical knowledge, equipment, and organisation helps to reduce death rates (antibiotics, vaccines, NHS)
133
how does reducing smoking decline death rates
As smoking is declining, less people are having heart attacks and therefore a declining death rate
134
how does public health measures lead to a decline in death rates
improvements in housing, purer drinking water, laws to combat adulteration of food and drink and improved sewage disposal
135
how does social changes lead to a decline in death rate
decline in dangerous manual jobs, greater public knowledge of causes of illness, higher incomes allow healthier lifestyle
136
how does the ageing population effect public services
larger proportion of services such as health and social care are used by older people, increased expenditure on health care, changes from policies, provision of housing (care homes)
137
how does the ageing population effect one person pensioner households
there is an increase in one person pensioner house holds, usually women as women live longer than men
138
how does the ageing population effect the dependency ratio?
number of old people increases, the dependency ratio increases and the burden increases on the working population
139
what is ageism
discrimination against people because of their age
140
modern society perspective on old age
'structured dependency' means older people are excluded from paid work, leaving them economically dependent on family.
141
what is the marxist perspective on old age?
the ageing population
old people are no use to capitalism as they are not productive in work
142
postmodern perspective of old age
there is a greater choice of lifestyle and identity whatever the age, we define ourselves from what we consume. Access to cosmetic surgeries, gyms, anti-ageing products, exercise equipment and sessions (yoga)
143
What is a criticism of the postmodernist view of old age
Old people still face discrimination, meaning there is not as much freedom for older people as postmodernist state
144
Criticism of the modernist view of old age
The elderly have access to products and services that create their identities, such as cosmetic surgery, gym memberships, anti-ageing products, and gym equipment
145
Criticism of the modernist view of old age
The elderly have access to products and services that create their identities, such as cosmetic surgery, gym memberships, anti-ageing products, and gym equipment
146
What changes to policies will have to take place due to the ageing population? Hirsch
Government will charge the working population more from savings and taxes to finance more older people and older people are encouraged to downsize houses to free up houses for younger people looking to start a family
147
What is immigration
Movement into a society
148
What is emigration
Movement out of a society
149
What is net migration?
The difference between the number of immigrants to the number of emigrants
150
What are the consequences of immigration
A more ethnically diverse society and greater diversity of family patterns
151
What at push factors
Factors which push people away from the country
152
Examples of push factors
Economic recession and unemployment, wars
153
What are pull factors
Factors that pull you into a country
154
Examples of pull factors
Higher wages, better opportunities(jobs)
155
How does immigration impact the population size?
The uk population size is growing due to the decline in net migration and the fact that births are exceeding deaths
156
What is the cushioning effect
Marxist view of the family
Zaretsky
The cushioning effect is where the man feels in control at home, unlike at work, which could explain dv of women
157
How does immigration lower the average age of the population directly
Immigrants are usually younger
158
How does immigration increase the average age of the population indirectly
Because immigrants are generally younger, they are more fertile and therefore more likely to produce babies
159
How does immigration increase the dependency ratio?
Immigrants are generally younger and therefore more likely to have children, which increases the dependency ratio
160
How does immigration decrease the dependency ratio?
Immigrants are more likely to be a working age, therefore lowering the dependency ratio
161
What is globalisation?
Barriers between countries are disappearing and people are becoming increasingly interconnected
162
What is acceleration?
A trend in which identifies that the rate of migrants is speeding up
163
What is differentiation of migrants?
A trend in which identifies that there are many types of migrant (asylum seekers, temporary workers, spouses, refugees, permanent settlers)
164
What is super diversity?
Vertovec
Migrants now come from a much wider range of countries, each individual differs in terms of legal status, culture or religion
165
What are the 3 types of migrant?
Cohen
1) Citizen (full citizenship rights)
2) Denizen (priviledged foreign nationals welcomed in by the state)
3) Helots (slaves, unskilled, poorly paid, reserve army of labour)
166
What is the femiisation of migration?
Almost half of all global migrants are women
167
What are the reasons for the feminisation of migration?
Expansion of service occupations means an increase in demand of female labour, women have joined the labour force (need for caretakers, cleaners), men remain unwilling to do domestic labour, and the fail of the state for adequate childcare funds(migrant women needed for childcare/nannys)
168
Explain the change in divorce
The divorce rate is increasing
169
What are the reasons for the increase in divorce?
Changes in the law, declining stigma and changing attitudes, secularisation, rising expectations of marriage, women's increased independence
170
Describe how changes in laws lead to an increase in the divorce rate
Divorce became easier, more equal and cheaper so therefore more accessible by more people, particularly the wc
170
Describe how rising expectations of marriage leads to an increase in divorce
Fletcher agues that we place too high expectations on our marriage, which is why many of them fail. Allan and Crow argue that love, affection and commitment are now the components of a successful marriage
171
Describe how declining stigma and changing attitudes leads to an increase in divorce rates
As stigma declines and divorce becomes more socially acceptable, couples are more willing to resort to divorce to solve marital problems, high profile (celebrity) divorces lead to a decline in stigma
172
Describe how secularisation lead to an increase in divorce
As society becomes less religious, people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings, churches have softened their views regarding divorce
173
Describe how a woman's increase in financial independence lead to an increase in divorce
Women are now less financially dependent on their husbands, they are more likely to be able to support themselves in event of divorce due to paid work
174
What are feminist explanations of the increase in divorce rates?
Married women bear a dual burden, causing a new source of conflict between the wife and husband, leading to higher divorce rates
175
How has modernity and individualisation lead to an increase in divorce
Individuals are free to pursue their own self interest, relationships become more fragile as people are unwilling to remain with a partner. The pure relationship exists to satisfy each others needs, not a sense of duty, which leads to higher divorce rates
176
How does New Right view divorce?
Undesirable, because it undermines the tradions of marriage and the nuclear family, children are likely to grow up without a father figure and children will have poorer health and educational outcomes
177
How do Postmodernists view divorce
Individuals now have the freedom to choose to end a relationship when it no longer meets their needs, leading to greater family diversity
178
How do functionalists view divorce?
Undesirable as it undermines the traditional nuclear family
179
How has the marriage rate changed?
Marriage is decreasing
180
What are the important changes in the pattern of marriage recently?
Less people are marrying, there are more re-marriages, leading to serial monogamy, people are marrying later, couples are less likely to marry in churches
181
What are the reasons for the decline in first marriages?
Changing attitudes towards marriage, secularisation, declining stigma about alternatives to marriage, changes in women's position, fear of divorce
182
Describe how changing attitudes towards marriage cause a decline in marriage
There is less pressure to marry, and more freedom for individuals to choose the type of relationship that they want
183
Describe how secularisation leads to the decline in marriages
Religious influences is declining, therefore people feel freer to choose not to marry
184
Describe how declining stigma about alternatives to marriage have caused a decline in marriage
Cohabitation, staying single and having children outside of marriage are now regarded as acceptable, therefore people are choosing these options instead of marriage, decreasing the marriage rate
185
Describe how the change in women's position has lead to a decline in marriages
Better educational and career opportunities means they are now less financially dependent on men, which gives them more freedom to not marry
186
Describe how fear of divorce leads to a decline in marriage
Rising divorce rates puts people off of marriage as it is likely their marriage will end in divorce
187
What is the reason for the increase in remarriages?
Divorce rates increasing means more people are remarrying
188
What are the reasons for the declining age of marrying?
Younger couples are postponing marriage to succeed in education or careers first, and people cohabit for a period before they marry, therefore postponing marriage
189
What is cohabitation?
Unmarried couple in a sexual relationship living together
190
What is the trend in cohabitation rates?
Cohabitation is increasing
191
What are the reasons for the increase in cohabitation?
Decline in stigma about sex outside of marriage, increased educational opportunities for women, secularisation, trial marriage, economic reasons
192
Describe how secularisation leads to an increase in cohabitation
People are less religious, therefore have more choice about their relationship status and if they want to remain single, marry, cohabit etc
193
How can cohabitation be a trial marriage?
People cohabit before marriage to see if it goes well or not, if it does then they intend to marry
194
How may people also view cohabitation other than as a trial marriage?
A permanent alternative to marriage, or as a temporary phrase before marriage due to one or both partners going through a divorce
195
How can increased social acceptance lead to an increase in same-sex relationships and cohabitations?
More people view same-sex relationships as acceptable, and therefore leads to an increase in relationships, Weeks calls this the "chosen family", where same-sex families are made through friendship kinship
196
What does Living Apart Together mean? LAT
Couples in a significant relationship, but are not married or cohabiting
197
What are the reasons for LAT?
Cannot afford a house, wanted to keep their own home, previous troubled relationships, "too early" to cohabit
198
How does the New Right view cohabitation?
Cohabitation causes a decline in marriage, cohabitation is less stable than marriage, children of cohabiting parents are disadvantaged (not a traditional nuclear family)
199
How do Feminists view cohabitation?
Cohabitation has lead to more negotiation and equality in roles, cohabitation is a pre-marriage test, cohabitation leads to a decline in divorce by the 5th anniversary
200
What is hybrid identities?
Demograohy
Migrants may develop hybrid identities, which are made up of 2 or more different sources. This may result in others challenging their identity by saying they don't fit in
201
What are heirarchal identities?
Demography
Migrant says they are more one culture than the other (English before french)
202
What are transnational identities?
Demography
Neither/nor identities, migrants don't see themselves as only belonging to one culture
203
What are the two policies that seek to control immigration? Demography
Assimilation and multiculturalism
204
What is assimilation? Demography
Policy which encourages migrants to adopt the beliefs, values and language of the 'host' culture. This may lead to migrants with hybrid identities to not abandon their culture
205
What is multiculturalism? Demography
Policy which accepts that migrants may wish to retain a separate cultural identity, although this may be limited (may not accept arranged marriages, but will accept curry)
206
What is shallow diversity?
Demography
Multiculturalism policy is limited, they only accept parts of migrant's cultures, such as curry
207
What is deep diversity?
Demography
Multiculturalism policy may only accept part of the migrant's culture, will not accept some, such as arranged marriages
208
What is a critique of multicultural policy?
Demography
Celebrate shallow diversity, diversity is limited, fails to address deeper issues such as racial discrimination
209
What is a critique of the assimilation policy? Demography
Castles- they are counter productive, they disregard minority groups as 'other' or culturally backward
210
What are the current trends in childbearing?
Nearly half of children are born outside of marriage, women are having children later (30.7), women are having fewer children, women are remaining childless
211
What are the reasons for the changes in child bearing?
Decline in stigma about having children outside of marriage, women now have much more options than motherhood (career, no children)
212
What are lone parent families?
Families with only one parent who is responsible for the child
213
What percentage of families are now lone parent?
24%
214
How many of lone parent families are headed by women?
90%
215
What are the reasons for the increase in lone parent families?
increase in divorce, increase in never-married women, decline in stigma attached to births outside of marriage
216
Why are lone parent families usually headed by women?
women suited to the nurturing role, courts normally give custody to mothers,, men less women than women to give up work for childcare
217
What is the New Right's perspective on lone parent families?
Welfare estate is too generous with benefits for unmarried women and their children, creates a "perverse incentive" where it rewards irresponsible behaviour (having children without being able to afford them), which leads to a "dependency culture" where people assume the welfare state will grant them with benefits . Their solution is to abolish welfare benefits.
218
What are criticisms of the New Right perspective on lone parent families?
Lone parent families would be in poverty without benefits due to inadequate welfare benefits, most lone parents are women who generally earn less than men, failure of fathers to pay maintenance
219
what percentage of step-families are there in britain
10%
220
What are the reasons for the increase in stepfamilies?
increase in lone parenting, divorce and separation
221
why are more children in a step family likely to be from the mums side
because children are more likely to remain with their mothers in events of divorce etc
222
Describe the british south asian family pattern
traditional family, higher rates of marriage, couples marry young, high fertility rates, women were usually fulltime housewives, higher rate of 3 generational households, strong sense of duty to elderly and family honour
223
describe the white british family pattern
lower marriage rate, low fertility rates, later marriages, high rates of divorce and cohabitation
224
describe the black british caribbean family pattern?
low marriage rates, low fertility, high rates of low parenthood, high rates of intermarriage
225
what are the changes in british asian families?
signs of changing attitudes as more sons have chosen intermarriage, higher rates of lone parenthood, growing acceptance of divorce
226
Why is there a low marriage rate but a high divorce/cohabitation rate for black british families?
black women place high value on independence, trend towards modern individualism and personal choice, a lot of the time there are no men present
227
The extended family Today.
"Dispersed extended family"
Willmott
declined, but has not disappeared, relatives are geographically separated but maintain frequent contact
228
How does the extended family benefit society today?
MC= financial help between father and son
WC= domestic help between mother and daughter
229
What is the beanpole family?
A long and thin extended family (grandparents, but few aunts and uncles)
230
Why are beanpole families increasing?
increased life expectancy means more surviving grandparents, and smaller family sizes means people have fewer siblings
231
Obligations to relatives
Despite the rise in beanpole families, people feel a sense of obligation to their relatives, financially and domestically (more is expected of women than men), personal care is mainly performed by women, daughters rarely chosen to provide money
232
What is the functionalist view of family diversity?
Because families perform primary socialisation and stabilisation of adult personalities, we can generalise about the type of family in society (nuclear). Other family types are seen as dysfunctional and diviant
233
What is the New Right view of family diversity?
Oppose family diversity, nuclear is the only correct family type, family should be based on the natural and biological differences between men and women (instrumental and expressive)
234
What is the New Right's view of lone parenting?
Lone mothers cannot discipline their children properly, leave boys without a father figure or role model, families likely to be poorer which places a burden on the welfare state
235
What is the New Right view of cohabitation?
Allows people to avoid commitment and responsibility, easier for the family to break down as it is not as stable as marriage
236
What are the New Right's solution to family diversity?
Government needs to encourage people to marry and introduce policies to support marriage, as current laws makes divorce easier, encourages homosexuality etc which undermines the nuclear family
237
What are the criticisms of the New Right view of family diversity?
Wrongly assume the husband and wife's 'biological' role, nuclear family is based on patriarchal oppression of women and is a source of gender inequality, people have rights to chose their relationships
238
What is the neo-conventional family?
Chester
Type of nuclear family, which is a dual earning family (woman going to work). Many people are part of a nuclear family at one point in time (life cycle)
239
Evidence for Chester's view that nuclear family remains the ideal
Most people marry and have children, most marry until death, most people live in a household headed by children
240
What are the 5 types of family diversity according to The Rapoports?
CLOGS
Cultural, Life cycle, Organisational, Generational. and Social class
241
Explain cultural diversity according to the Rapoports
Different cultural, religious, and ethnic groups have different family structures (higher proportion of extended families among Asian families than any other)
242
Explain life-cycle diversity according to the Rapoports?
Family structures differ according to the life stage reached in the life-cycle (newlyweds, couples with dependent children, retired, empty nest families, widowed)
243
Explain organisational diversity according to the Rapoports?
Differences in the ways that family roles are organised (joint conjugal, dual-earning, segregated conjugal, one wage earner)
244
Explain generational diversity according to the Rapoports?
Older and younger generations have different attitudes and experiences that reflect the historical periods of their life. (differing views on divorce and cohabitation.)
245
Explain social class diversity according to the Rapoports?
Differences in family structure are due to the differing incomes of social classes
246
What is the postmodern view of family diversity?
society has entered a new, chaotic stage, no longer one type of family, choice in lifestyle relationships and family arrangements
247
Stacey (postmodernist) view of family diversity
Greater freedom and choice has benefitted women, free from patriarchal oppression, many women now reject the expressive role, created family that suited their needs
248
What is a divorce extended family?
Stacey
members connected by divorce rather than marriage (relationships with ex's family and new partner).
249
What is the individualisation thesis according to Giddens and Beck?
Traditional social structures (CAGE) have lost influence over us, we have become freed from tarditional roles which allows us to chose. Beck calls this a do it yourself biography
250
In Giddens view, what has lead to the transformation of family diversity?
Contraception allows sex instead of reproduction
Women gaining independence meant they have greater opportunities (education, jobs)
251
What is the pure relationship?
Giddens
Relationships are based on satisfaction of each others needs, individual choices and needs
252
What is a downside to the pure relationship?
Relationships become less stable, easier to leave relationships if needs aren't satisfied, no permanent commitment
253
Same sex couples as pioneers
Giddens
Giddens argues that the increase in same sex couples has lead to the formation of new family types, creating equality, they are able to develop relationships on choice not tradition, Negotiate personal relationships, and create family structures to meet their needs
254
What is 'Risk Society'?
Beck
Because tradition no longer has influence over us, we are more aware of risks and therefore choices are calculated
255
What is the Negotiated family?
Beck
replacement of patriarchal family, negotiated families don't conform to traditions, but vary according to wishes and needs, couples negotiate their needs and expectations
256
What is a downfall of the Negotiated family?
It is instable, individuals are free to leave if their needs are not met, creates more lone parent/re-marriages
257
What is the zombie family?
Beck
Relationships are subject to greater risks and uncertainty, where it appears to be alive but is actually dead, family cannot provide haven in an insecure world and instable relationship
258
What are criticisms of the individualisation thesis? PL critiques
Exaggerates how much choice people have about family relationships, traditional norms have not been as weakened as they say, our decisions are not completely free, they are influenced by social context and structural factors
259
What is the connectedness thesis? Personal life Smart and May
We are fundamentally social beings whose choices are always made within a web of connectedness. Personal history and networks of existing relationships influence our choice.
260
What did Finch and Mason discover about the connectedness thesis?
Individuals are embedded within family connections and obligations that restrict their freedom and choice
261
How does the connectedness theory challenge Gidden's idea of Pure relationship?
Relationships are not always pure (eg. not based on own needs, but based on social class)
262
How does class and gender limit out choices?
Women usually gain custody over children (harder to form relationships).
Women generally earn less (harder to work full time to afford life and maintain relationship)
264
What is the functionalist view of social policies
Social policies act in the interest of society, and helps the family to perform their functions more effectively and make life better for members (health, education, and housing policies)
265
What is an example of how social policies help the family to perform their role? In a functionalist view
The NHS means that families are better able to take care of its members when they are sick
266
What are the criticisms of the functionalist view on social policies
It assumes that all members of the family benefit from social policies (women don’t), it assumes that there is a March of progress within society (Marxists argue that there is a clock back progress where poor families are having their benefits cut)
267
What is Donzelot’s view of social policies?
Donzelot sees social policies as a form of state control of the family, through the use of professions (doctors, social workers) who use their knowledge to control and change families.
268
Which class is targeted most by professions in Donzelot’s view and why?
The lower class, because they are seen as ‘problem’ families who cause crime and anti-social behaviour, professionals target them for improvement
269
What is a criticism of Donzelot’s view of social police’s?
Fails to identify who benefits from such policies of surveillance (Marxists argue the middle class benefits, feminists argue men benefit)
270
What is the New Right perspective of social policies?
Changes that have led to greater diversity (increase in divorce, cohabitation, same-sex, lone parent) are threatening the traditional nuclear family and producing social problems such as welfare dependency
271
Why is the New Right critical of the welfare policies? Murray
Murray argues that the welfare policies provide ‘generous’ benefits (council housing, universal credit) which undermines the traditional nuclear family and encourages dysfunctional family types (lone parent). The welfare state awards irresponsible behaviour
(benefits offer ‘perverse incentives’)
272
How does the state offer ‘perverse incentives’ in Murray’s view?
Benefits encourage lone parent families which means more boys grow up without a father figure, which will raise crime rates
273
How do social policies encourage a dependency culture in the New Right’s view?
Individuals are becoming dependent on the state to support them and their children rather than being self-reliant which threatens socialisation of the young and the maintenance of work ethic among boys
274
What is the feminist view of social policies? Radical feminism
Social policies help to maintain women’s subordinate position and unequal gender division of labour in the family (assumes women are the main caretakers due to longer maternity leave)
275
What is the liberal feminist view of social policies?
Liberal feminists argue that social policies help women to be free of patriarchal oppression (benefits for lone mothers) etc
276
Give examples of policies with a comparative views of family diversity
China's one child policy, Communist Romania, Nazi Germany
277
Explain China's one child policy as a comparative view
Population control, discourages couples from having more than one child, people who broke this law had to pay fines and some were sterilised, ones who complied were given benefits and free child healthcare
278
Explain communist Romania as a comparative view
Intended to increase the birth rate, banned contraception and abortion and made divorce more difficult, childless couples had to pay 5% more tax
279
Explain Nazi Germany as a comparative view
encourages women to breed a master race, restricting abortion and contraception, keep women out of the workforce, sterilised disabled people as they are deemed unfit to breed
280
Functionalist Fletcher's view on social policy
health, education and housing policies had lead to the development of the welfare state that supports the family in performing its roles effectively
281
what are the consequences of people becoming more dependent on the welfare state in the new right view?
threatens the socialisation of the young and the maintenance of work ethic among young men
282
What is the new right's solution to social policies and the welfare state?
Policies must be changed with cuts in the welfare system spending and tighter restrictions about who is eligible for benefits
283
What will be the result of cutting welfare spending in the new right view?
taxes would be reduced, fathers will be more incentive to work and provide for their families
284
What will be the result of denying council housing to teen mothers in the new right view?
remove the incentive to become pregnant when young and unmarried
285
What are the criticisms of the new right view of social policies and families?
Wrongly assume the patriarchal nuclear family is natural instead of constructed, cutting benefits will make poor people less self reliant as they fall into more poverty, justify a return to traditional nuclear family
286
How does the New Right influence the conservative governments 1979-1997
Banned promotion of homosexuality, defined divorce as a social problem and set up child support agencies to enforce maintenance payments by absent parents
287
How do the conservative government 1979-1997 oppose new right views
made divorce easier and giving illegitimate children the same rights as those born to married parents
288
How does the new right influence New Labour governments 1997-2010
both see family as headed by married heterosexual couples bringing up children, however the new labour also recognises the dual-earner family
289
How does the new labour government oppose new right views
favoured the dual earner family, higher benefits to help poor children (minimum wage)
290
What are the examples of social policies that show how the new labour oppose new right views
longer maternity leave, working family tax credit, the new deal (help lone parents return to work), civil partnership for same-sex couples, unmarried couples same rights to adopt as married couples
291
What is the the Coalition government 2010-2015
Inconsistent policies due to conflict between modernisers (accept diversity) and traditionalists (favour new right view of traditional nuclear family)
292
How does the coalition government oppose new right ideas
shared parental leave, increased free childcare for working parents, same sex marriage
293
How does the new right influence the conservative government policies 2016-present
2 child cap on child tax credits
294
how does the conservative government 2016-present oppose new right view
civil partnerships for homosexual couples
