factors which influence pol stability

Question 1

Personal style, rely on close group of people, mutual benefit-Indonesia

Answer 1

Suharto had cronies such as cukongs Liem Sioe Liang and Bob Hasan which provided capital and connections.

Question 2

Personal style, rely on close group of people, mutual benefit-Philippines

Answer 2

Marcos’ cronies were given monopolies for political support. Robert Bendicto controlled the sugar industry and Antonio Floriendo controlled the bananas industry.

Question 3

political style to reduce opposition- Indonesia

Answer 3

Suharto was distrustful of others and had a personal style of frequently rotating those around him to ensure no one gathered sufficient influence or leadership to challenge him. He also fostered relationships with individuals rather than groups, playing one off against the another through ‘one-on one’ consultations or better known as ‘Kiss’- ‘to the palace one by one’

Question 4

political style to reduce opposition- Philippines

Answer 4

Marcos was ruthless and brutal when dealing with political enemies or opposition. He passed General Order No.2 which compelled the the military to arrest and detain a list of people including leading politicians and leaders of suspected subversive organisations. He also assassinated long-time political rival Benigno Aquino in 1983 and had confiscated all his economic assets.

Question 5

leaders manipulate elections, constitutional processes- Philippines

Answer 5

The elite domination of constitutional processes and elections characterized Philippine politics. Elections never promoted popular participation or a clear mandate for a legitimate leadership. Marcos’ New Society Movement mobilized electoral support through vote buying and intimidation.

Question 6

leaders manipulate elections, constitutional processes- Indonesia

Answer 6

While elections were held regularly and constitutional processes of Presidential nomination in the MPR ( People’s Consultative Assembly) were adhered too, Suharto was the only Presidential candidate throughout the New Order and elections heavily manipulated by ABRI and Golkar. Despite regular elections, political contestation was out of bounds since the opposition parties were amalgamated in 1972. Constant manipulation of constitutional processes led to domination of the regime for 30 years.

Question 7

leaders skill- Thailand

Answer 7

Prem was a master strategist who was able to perceive shifting currents and changes in the balance of power even as the international and do,estic developments strengthened and weakened other groups. He could establidsh political stability as he was able to constantly reshuffle his cabinet and power bases to ensure accommodation among the diff groups (Young Turks, businesses, etc)

Question 8

leaders skill- Singapore

Answer 8

Goh Chok Tong arrested the slide in PAP’s share of votes in the 1990s by introducing a more consultative style of politics to prevent PAP to being seen as increasingly distant from the public. He also initiated the broadening of political discourse bounded by OB markers. The opening up of politics under him was timely in helping the government reconnect with the grassroots.

Question 9

Culture- Indonesia

Answer 9

Javanese culture was non-confrontational. Central to the New Order’s political culture were the Islamic concepts of musyawarah ( deliberation) and mufakat (consensus). These concepts undergirded the reluctance to acknowledge lines of division and conflict openly. As a result, even when military leaders were replaced by Suharto or when differences arose these diffetences were usually swept under the carpet. These led to the muted nature of opposition in Indonesian political culture up to the late 1980s.

Question 10

Culture-Philippines

Answer 10

Culture of ‘utang na loob’ which essentially meant indebtedness. This resulted in the Phillipines having an accommodative patronage system which saw Marcos ‘buying’ loyalty from his cronies.

Question 11

mil defiance led to collapse of regimes- Indonesia

Answer 11

The military refused to follow orders of Suharto. During the 1998 protest which eventually led to Suharto’s fall and the end of the New Order, when the students marched from Parliament to the Presidential Palace on 18 May, they were flanked by military officers from the Air Force, Navy and Marines, to protect them from government forces.

Question 12

mil defiance led to collapse of regimes- Philippines

Answer 12

In the Philippines, during the 1986 EDSA/ People Power Revolution, the military refused to follow Marcos’ orders but instead supported the protestors. The RAM also attempted to stage a coup, but failed.

Question 13

mil-bureaucratic domination-Indonesia

Answer 13

By the late 1970s, half the Indonesian Cabinet and over two-thirds of the regional governorships were military appointees. In the economy, Suharto awarded loyal military officers with lucrative monopolies, forestry concessions and access to oil. Ibnu Sutowo, a close military associate, headed the state oil company Pertamina in 1968. The system of patronage networks and system of rewards served to negate any motivation to challenge or rock the regime, hence ensuring the stability of Suharto’s rule.

Question 14

mil-bureaucratic domination-Philippines

Answer 14

Marcos increased the role of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) and gave them roles in judicial functions, economic development and management of public utilities. At the same time, Marco cultivated a base of support within the military. For example, his supporter Fabian C. Ver was promoted from Captain in 1965 to Brigadier General 1970, and was tasked with leading the National Intelligence Security Agency.

Question 15

pol leaders ensure mil no political challenge- Indonesia

Answer 15

Suharto acted to reduce overdependence on the army by merging the army with other parts of the armed forces through regular reorganizations of the military structure and personnel as well as a cut in the army’s share of the mil budget. Suharto also fostered inter-service rivalry and rotated personnel constantly. He also acted to quickly replace personnel who opposed him. For example, Suharto appointed one of his closest aides Benny Murdani as ABRI commander. When Murdani led ABRI disagreements against Suharto, he was replaced in 1988 after only a five-year stint.

Question 16

pol leaders ensure mil no political challenge- Philippines

Answer 16

In 1966, Marcos forced fourteen of the twenty-five officers into retirement and replaced one-third of the provincial commanders of the Philippine Constabulary. Moreover, he kept the defence portfolio for himself and cultivated a base of support within the military. For example, his supporter Fabian C. Ver was promoted from Captain in 1965 to Brigadier General 1970, and was tasked with leading the National Intelligence Security Agency.

Question 17

safeguard rights of grps led to stability- Malaysia

Question 18

constitutional processes and elections led to stability- Singapore

Answer 18

Regular elections and legalization of political opposition within parameters set by the government. Workers’ Party and Singapore Democratic Party were competitive enough to win seats in the 1991 general elections despite the dominance of the PAP.

Question 19

constitutional processes and elections led to stability- Malaysia

Answer 19

regular elections from 1972. Elections legitimized both the Barisan Nasional government as well as opposition parties and gave the people space for expression of their political preferences. Hence, from 1972 to 1998, elections might have played a role in stemming any large-scale anti-government demonstrations. There was also the creation of a strong opposition KeADILan bloc by 1999 despite the dominance of the BN, showcasing the allowance of political participation and hence legitimacy of the ruling regime.

Question 20

constitutional processes used to curtail opposition- Burma

Answer 20

Political opposition was declared illegal and the BSPP was the only legalised party. The major political challenge posed by the religious leaders was dealt with by depriving them of the right to vote and hold office in 1965, together with the adoption of behavioural codes for monks in 1980. Elections were meant to affirm existing state control and recruit more individuals into state structures

Question 21

constitutional processes used to curtail opposition- Indonesia

Answer 21

In 1969, a new election law was passed which assured the government’s appointing of 22% of the parliament and 33% of the Assembly, sufficient to block constitutional amendment, ensuring government support in the MPR. Dominance of regime party Golkar in elections (won at least 64% votes through 1980s) through the use of formal and informal manipulation such as the forced amalgamation of 9 political parties into 2 in 1973, paralyzing them as potential sources of opposition. Furthermore, Suharto intervened in the selection of the leadership of these parties. Parties were also not allowed to campaign in the villages for no more than a couple of weeks in each election, so as not to disturb the ‘tranquility’ of the peasants.

Question 22

limited coercive measures in semi-democracies- SG

Answer 22

The Internal Security Act was used to arrest 22 catholics in 1987 in the ‘Marxist Consipiracy’ for their alleged involvement in an underground communist network.

Question 23

limited coercive measures in semi-democracies- Msia

Answer 23

Mahathir used ISA, detention of over 100 politicians/dissidents in Operation Lalang in 1987 and jailing of Anwar Ibrahim in 1988.

Question 24

cause of CW, have aid- Indonesia

Answer 24

The regime’s stability for close to 30 years was achieved with state violence towards its most militant enemies. The human rights violation was possible also due to US (and western) support for Suharto, given Indonesia’s value as an anti-comm bulwark in the region. Received American aid and support

Question 25

cause of cw, have aid- Philippines

Answer 25

The United States overlooked the sordid politics and misdemeanours of politicians in exchange for allies who could suppress the communist threat. Received American aid and support.

Question 26

cause of cw, shore up domestic support- vietnam

Answer 26

The obstacles placed in the way of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam both by their ideological allies and enemies served to enhance their resilience and capacity of the political system. While ideological enemies hampered economic dev in V through the use of tactics such as sanctions, it further strengthened the stability of V’s political system as any internal conflict within the party was subordinated to the immediate objective of survival.

Question 27

cause of cw, british help to weed out comm, cultivate anti-comm leaders- malaysia

Answer 27

The CW context was impt insofar as the British reduced the pol threats posed by the Malayan Comm Party by countering them through the Emergency from 1948 to 1960. This meant that unlike other countries, M did not have to contend with a strong communist presence or threat of an insurgency. It also meant that the pol parties present at the creation of M had a degree of ideological consistency- moderate anti-comm politics. While pol parties might disagree over the precise solution to ethnic diversity, these divisions were not amplified or exploited by ideological differences. As a result, British involvement due to the CW in the 1950s made the pol scene more stable.

Question 28

cause of cw, british help to weed out comm, cultivate anti-comm leaders- SG

Answer 28

British withdrawal left politicians prepared and ready for a moderate anti-comm pol climate , similar to M. British helped the PAP to weed out the Barisan sosialis in 1964.