Extra information from book Flashcards
Goals of science
- Description
- Prediction
- Explanation
- Control
What do leaders need to practice EBM?
- Ability
- Motivation
- Opportunity
What are the standards that may be applied by leaders using EBM to ask questions and challenge their thinking about their organisations?
- Stop treating old ideas as if they were brand new.
- Be suspicious of “breakthrough” studies and ideas.
- Develop and celebrate collective brilliance.
- Emphasize drawbacks as well as virtues.
- Use success (and failure) stories to illustrate sound practices but not in place of a valid research method.
- Adopt a neutral stance toward ideologies and theories.
What are the three interrelated parts of critical thinking?
- The elements of thought (reasoning)
- The intellectual standards
- The intellectual traits
What are the steps of the scientific method?
- Make observations
- Think of interesting questions
- Formulate hypotheses
- Develop testable predictions
- Gather data to test predictions
- Develop general theories
- Make observations
- Etc.
Levels of analysis
- Individual level
- Team-level
- Organisational level
- Industry level
Theory X
Leaders assume that people are basically lazy, don’t like to work, and avoid responsibility.
This type of manager’s related behaviours include being directive, engaging in surveillance, and coercion.
Theory Y
Leaders assume that people are internally motivated, like to work, and will accept responsibility.
These managers’ related leaders are to allow discretion, participation, and the encouragement of creativity on the job.
Type ABCD theory
4 personality types
Type A:
- Competitive
- Aggressive
Type B:
- Relaxed
- Easy-going
Type C:
- Nice
- Hardworking
- Try to appease others
Type D:
- Distressed personality
- Combination of negative affect and social inhibition
Machiavellianism (Mach)
Refers to a person who beliefs that the “ends justify the means.” In other words, such a person will do whatever it takes to win.
The Dark Triad
Is comprised of
- Machiavellianism
- Narcissism
- Psychopathy
Narcissism
The expression of grandiosity, entitlement, dominance, and superiority.
Psychopathy
Impulsivity and thrill seeking combined with low empathy and anxiety.
Self-monitoring
Self-observation and self-control guided by situational cues to social appropriateness.
High and low self-monitors
High self-monitors are very adaptable to situations.
Low self-monitors are not able to pretend that they are someone that they are not, they are true to themselves.
Trait-like
Implies that the personality characteristic is relatively stable over time.
State-like
Refers to personality characteristics that are relatively changeable, and a person can develop (or reduce) them through either self-awareness and/or training.
Psychological capital characteristics (PsyCap)
New research suggests that these characteristics are more stable than fleeting states of mind, but they are open to change.
The characteristics of PsyCap (psychological capital characteristics)
- Efficacy
- Optimism
- Hope: the will to succeed and the ability to identify and pursue the path to success.
- Resiliency
Core self-evaluations (CSE)
Fundamental premises that individuals hold about themselves and their functioning in the world.
People who have a high core self-evaluation see themselves as competent and in control.
Cognitive dissonance
The incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between attitudes and behaviour.
→ Creates stress for an individual, and the person will be motivated to resolve the stress by making a change in one or both of the other components.
→ Thoughts, needs, feelings, and behaviours need to be aligned.
What effect does social pressure have on attitudes?
Social pressure from others may strengthen the relationship of an attitude toward behaviour.
What are the possible responses to dissatisfaction with work?
- Active or passive: the employee can actually do something about it or choose not to respond in an active way.
- Constructive or destructive: the employee who is dissatisfied can respond by trying to do something positive or negative about the situation.
What are the four possible reactions to dissatisfaction with work?
- Exit: the employee can search for another job and leave (active and destructive).
- Voice: the employee can discuss their dissatisfaction with their supervisor, making suggestions for improvement (active and constructive).
- Loyalty: the employee can wait for the situation to improve, showing loyalty and trust in the management to address it in time (passive and constructive).
- Neglect: the employee allows the situation to get worse and may be late or absent from work and put in less effort on the job (passive and destructive).
Core self-evaluations
Positive attitude about oneself.
What are the four types of people when you look at organisational commitment X job involvement?
High organisational commitment + high job involvement = Institutional “stars”
Low organisational commitment + high job involvement = “Lone wolves”
High organisational commitment + low job involvement = Corporate citizens
High organisational commitment + low job involvement = Apathetics
Institutional “stars”
High organisational commitment + high job involvement
- Least likely to be absent or leave.
- Focus on work itself, future with the organization, satisfaction with pay, co-workers, and supervision.
“Lone wolves”
Low organisational commitment + high job involvement
- More likely to leave voluntarily than corporate citizens.
- Focus on work itself, satisfaction with working conditions and pay.
Corporate citizens
High organisational commitment + low job involvement
- Less likely to leave voluntarily than lone wolves.
- Focus on satisfaction with coworkers.
Apathetics
High organisational commitment + low job involvement
- Most likely to leave voluntarily.
- Focus on satisfaction with rewards.
Employee engagement
Related to job involvement and enthusiasm for the work performed.
Engagement has been defined as “the investments of an individual’s complete self into a role.”
Psychological empowerment
Intrinsic task motivation manifested in a set of four cognitions reflecting an individual’s orientation to his or her work role.
What are the four cognitions of psychological empowerment?
- Meaning – how much work goals align with your personal standards.
- Competence – your belief in your capabilities to show mastery in your work role.
- Self-determination – the degree to which you feel that you have a choice in your work and autonomy to carry it out according to your own preferences.
- Impact – refers to how much you believe that you can influence important work outcomes.
How could we make more accurate conclusions?
- Consensus information
- Distinctiveness information
- Consistency information
Consensus information
Information about how other people would behave if they were in the same situation.
Distinctiveness information
Information about how the individual behaves the same way in different situations.
Consistency information
Information about how the individual behaves toward a certain stimuli across time and circumstances.
Mentoring
An intense developmental relationship whereby advice, counselling, and developmental opportunities are provided to a protégé by a mentor, which, in turn, shapes the protégé’s career experiences.
What are the types of support you can get from a mentor?
- Career support
- Social support
What are the four dimensions of authentic leadership?
- Self-awareness
- Relational transparency
- Internalized moral perspective
- Balanced processing
Implicit leadership theory (ILT)
Examined how attributions about leadership affect follower perceptions of who you are in the role of leader.
→ People have implicit leadership schemas in their minds about what constitutes an effective leader. These schemas are traits and characteristics that a person thinks are linked to a leader.
Romance of leadership perspective
Represents a critique of all leadership research. It articulates why people credit leaders for their influence to change organizations and even societies.
What steps should leaders follow when adapting to the situation?
- Assess your followers’ individual differences in terms of abilities and motivation.
- Assess the situation.
- Pay attention to follower behaviours, and take corrective actions and apply rewards as suggested by the full-range model of leadership.
- Assess the moral component of every leadership decision you make.
What are the “lines” of power for leaders in organisations to tap into to gain productive power?
- Supply: leaders bring in the things that their group need.
- Information: leaders need to know what is happening in the organization that may affect their group’s goals.
- Support: a leader needs to be able to innovate to have an impact on the organization.
What is “influence without authority” based on?
The law of reciprocity
Rational persuasion
Providing evidence such as data, statistics, and reports that justify the need and relevance of a request.
A tactic commonly employed by leaders, and it is very effective.
Proactive influence tactic.
Apprising
Proactive influence tactic.
Involves persuading the target of influence that complying will advance his/her career.
Inspirational appeals
Proactive influence tactic.
Try to arouse followers’ emotions and can work with all targets of influence.
Consultation
Proactive influence tactic.
Invites the person to be involved with a proposed idea and may be used in any direction as well.
Exchange
Proactive influence tactic.
Is based on the quid pro quo in organizational life. Direct or indirect, exchange of favours between the parties.
Collaboration
Proactive influence tactic.
An offer to provide assistance or resources to the person being asked to do something.
Ingratiation
Proactive influence tactic.
Compliment-giving or acting deferential.
Personal appeals
Proactive influence tactic.
Based on friendship or loyalty.
Legitimating tactics
Proactive influence tactic.
Remind the target of their role in the organization in relation to the person making the request.
Pressure tactics
Proactive influence tactic.
Threats and relate to coercion.
Coalition tactics
Proactive influence tactic.
Involve gaining the support of others.
Supplication
Minimizing bad tactic.
Individuals advertise their weaknesses or shortcomings in order to elicit an attribution of being needy from observers.
Intimidation
Minimizing bad tactic.
People signal their power or potential to punish in order to be seen as dangerous by observers.
Exemplification
Maximizing good tactic.
People self-sacrifice or go above and beyond the call of duty in order to gain the attribution of dedication from observers.
Political skills are comprised of four sets of behaviours
- Networking ability
- Social astuteness
- Interpersonal influence
- Apparent sincerity
Social astuteness
Being able to accurately interpret the behaviour of others through attentive observation.
Interpersonal influence
Having the ability to adapt influence strategies to different situations.
What do perceptions of organisational politics consist of?
- General political behaviour
- Going along to get ahead
- Pay and promotion policies
General political behaviour
Includes the behaviours of individuals who act in a self-serving manner to obtain valued outcomes.
Going along to get ahead
Consists of a lack of action by individuals in order to secure valued outcomes.
Pay and promotion policies
Involves the organisation behaving politically through the policies it enacts.
Team mental models (TMMs)
Team members shared, organized understanding and mental representation of knowledge about key elements of the team’s relevant environment.
Teams with highly TMMs are fundamentally “on the same page” with respect to sharing a common view of what is occurring in the team.
What are the functions of team mental models?
- Allowing team members to interpret information similarly.
- Sharing expectations concerning the future.
- Developing similar reasoning as to why something happens.
What are the six key factors that enable a high-performance team?
- Team member competencies.
- Skills (processes, tools, and techniques)
- Interpersonal skills (communication, understanding personality differences)
- A shared value system.
- Shared vision (/purpose/ goals direction)
- Supporting organisational values including openness.
Task metrics
The “what” of teamwork.
Process metrics
The “how” of teamwork.
Individual development metrics
These metrics relate to how many individuals are developing new skills and learning through teamwork.
What is a key factor for team learning to translate into performance?
The degree to which team members agree that they feel a sense of psychological safety for taking risks.
Social identity
The individual’s knowledge that he belongs to certain social groups together with some emotional and value significance to him of this group membership
What are the steps to consensus decision making?
- Introduction
- Clarifying questions
- Discussion
- Establish basic direction
- Synthesize or modify proposal (as needed)
- Call for consensus
- Record: agreement, stand aside, blocking, abstain
What are the steps to multivoting decision making?
- Display the list of options.
- Number (or letter) all items.
- Decide how many items must be on the final reduces list.
- Working individually, each member selects five items (or another number of choices) he/she thinks most important.
- Tall votes.
- If a decision is clear, stop here. Otherwise, continue with a brief discussion of the vote.
- Repeat the voting process in Steps 4 and 5.
When can the Nominal Group Technique (NGT) be effective?
If there are status differences in the team or if the team has one or more dominating participants.
What are the steps when making a decision based on a stepladder?
- Present the task.
- Two-member discussion.
- Add one member.
- Repeat, adding one member at a time.
- Final decision.
What is the only generational group that does not conceptually link organisational commitment with workplace culture?
The millenials
Cultural tightness-looseness
The strength of social norms and the level of sanctioning within societies.
Cultural tightness
Associated with order and efficiency, conformity, and low rates of change.
Cultural looseness
Associated with social disorganization, deviance, innovation, and openness to change.
What did the Global Leadership and Organisational Behaviour Effectiveness (GLOBE) project seek?
To understand differences in leader behaviours and relationships with relevant organizational outcomes worldwide.
Culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT)
There are certain culturally endorsed attributes of leadership that may be universal:
- Charismatic/value-based: the ability to inspire and motivate others to high performance.
- Team-oriented: effective team building and implementing a common goal.
- Participative: involving others in decisions and implementations.
- Humane-oriented: being supportive and showing consideration, compassion, and generosity.
- Autonomous: independent and individualistic leadership.
- Self-protective: ensuring safety and security of individuals, including safe-saving.
Global mind-set
A set of individual attributes that enhance a manager’s ability to influence others who are different from them.
Metacognitive cultural intelligence (CQ)
The cognitive processing necessary to recognize and understand expectations appropriate for different cultural situations.
Cognitive cultural intelligence (CQ)
Self-awareness and the ability to detect cultural patterns.
Motivational cultural intelligence (CQ)
Persistence and goal setting for cross-cultural interactions.
Behavioural cultural intelligence (CQ)
The ability to adjust to others’ cultural practices.
Biculturals
People who have internalized more than one cultural profile. These individuals are therefore comfortable operating in two different cultures, and they have been found to have more cross-cultural adaptive skills compared to monoculturals.
Global mobility
Occurs when individuals, and often their families, are relocated from one country to another by an employer, generally from a familiar situation to a novel one for a fixed period of time.
These globally mobile employees, also known as expatriates, have grown in importance as firms expand their global reach.
Reversed culture shock
The realization that time has moved on and things have not stood still while the expatriate was away from the home office. The returning expatriate experiences confusion and disappointment that may lead to a temporary state of depression and sense of loss.
The motivation process
Energizing behaviour => directing behaviour => sustaining behaviour => feedback => energizing behaviour => etc.
The three fundamental needs of the need theory
- Need for achievement
- Need for power
- Need for affiliation
Motivation to lead (MTL)
An individual differences construct that affects a leader’s or leader-to-be’s decisions to assume leadership training, roles, and responsibilities and that affect his or her intensity of effort at leading and persistence as a leader.
What are the three basic reasons for wanting to be a leader?
- Affective-identity MTL: the natural tendency to lead others.
- Social-normative MTL: the tendency to lead because of a sense of duty or responsibility.
- Non-calculative MLT: where people agree to lead without calculating the costs and benefits of assuming leadership.
What are the steps to organisational behaviour modification?
- Pinpoint the specific behaviour that needs to be changed.
- Measure the baseline:=.
- Perform an A-B-C analysis:
a. Antecedents: what is causing the behaviour?
b. Behaviour: what is the current behaviour? What is the desired behaviour?
c. Consequences: what is currently reinforcing the behaviour? What needs to be changed? - Develop an action plan based on reinforcement theory.
- Implement the plan and then evaluate the plan comparing the behaviour to the baseline.
Extrinsics in service of intrinsics
Refers to how extrinsic rewards may support an employee’s sense of competence if they don’t undermine autonomy.
Motivation-work cycle math
The understanding that innovation occurs in phases and intrinsic motivation may be more important during the idea-generation phase.
What are the five patterns of feedback seeking that matter?
- How frequently people seek feedback.
- How they seek it.
- The timing.
- Whom they ask feedback from.
- What they ask for feedback about.
What are the characteristics of culture?
- Innovation and risk taking
- Attention to detail
- Outcome orientation
- People orientation
- Team orientation
- Aggressiveness (easygoingness reversed)
- Stability
Goal incongruence
When organizational members don’t agree on what the goals of the organization should be.
Performance ambiguity
Occurs when revenue streams are unpredictable or uneven.
How do organisations address control?
- Market control: when prices determine how social interactions between people are formed.
- Bureaucratic control: when legitimate authority governs social interactions.
- Clan control: when shared values and beliefs govern how people interact socially.
General subcultures in most organisations
- Operators
- Engineers
- Executives
Operators in organisations
The line managers and employees who are involved in making products, delivering services, and interacting with customers directly.
Engineers in organisations
They focus on designing systems to support the work of operations.
Executives in organisations
They are financially responsible to their board of directors and shareholders.
What are the aspects of ethical climate?
- Caring
- Law and code
- Rules
- Instrumental
- Independence
Three key managerial tools for leveraging culture for performance
- Recruiting and selecting people for culture fit.
- Managing culture through socialization and training.
- Managing culture through the reward system.
What are the organisational subsystems?
Formal organization
- Provides the coordination and control necessary for organized activity.
Social factors
- Include individual differences, team interactions, and the organisational culture.
Technology
- How raw materials and inputs transform into outputs.
Physical setting
- The characteristics of the physical space and how it is arranged.
Organisational development
A collection of social psychology methods employed to improve organisational effectiveness and employee well-being.
Interventions for organisational development
- Survey feedback
- Workout
- Process consultation
- Team building
- Appreciative inquire (AI)
Change uncertainty
Uncertain negative cognitive outcomes of a high level of perceived change excessiveness among employees.
Crossover stress effect
To carry stress home from the workplace.
Work-school conflict
Some students have to work while they are in school.
“Buffering effect”
Support during a stress episode is beneficial because help from others serve as a buffer from stress and strain.
What are stereotypes and belief updates related to?
The primacy effect
How can a leader guard against the recency effect?
- Rehearsal, or repetition of information.
- Coding, in which you link the information you need to remember to something familiar and easily retrievable.
- Imaging, in which verbal information is linked to visual images.
Elaborative interrogation
Increases the willingness to let go of preconceived notions and learn material that challenges beliefs.
Related to the availability bias.
The decisional roles of managers
- Entrepreneur: looking for new ideas and opportunities.
- Disturbance handler: resolving conflicts and choosing strategic alternatives.
- Resource allocator: deciding how to prioritize the direction of resources.
- Negotiator: protecting the interests of the business by interacting within teams, departments, and the organisation.
What are the characteristics of intuition?
- An unconscious process
- Involving holistic associations
- Produced rapidly
- Results in affectively charged judgements
Benefits of intuition
- Expedited decision making.
- Improvement of the decision in some way.
- Facilitation of personal development.
- Promotion of decisions compatible with company culture.
Promotion of decisions compatible with company culture
Helps make decisions in accord with the organization’s values.
Wicked organisation problems
Are complex and changing decisions scenarios that leaders are facing with more frequency.
What are the processes that underlie the hindsight bias?
- The person recalls the old event and responds consistently with the memory of it.
- The person focuses on the outcome and adjusts their belief, pretending that they didn’t know the outcome.
- The belief is reconstructed based upon that the judgment would have been prior to the outcome.
- Based upon a person’s motivations to present themselves favourably to others.
Four antidotes to escalation
- Separate the initial decision maker from the decision evaluator.
- Create accountability for decision processes only, not outcomes.
- Shift attention away from the self.
- Be careful about compliments.
Fundamental ethical philosophies that guide ethical decisions in organisations
- Utilitarianism: the consideration of decisions that do the most good for the most people.
- Individual rights protects individuals.
- Justice emphasizes social justice.
- Ethics of care focuses on the need to maintain relationships with others, and connections to others guide decisions.
Alternative dispute resolution
Methods to resolve conflict that both parties agree to without involving litigation.
What are the steps in mediation?
- Participation – participants are actively involved in the decision-making process.
- Representation/reparation – parties are allowed to express their perspective and how they feel about what has occurred. → apology.
- Validation/reintegration – parties work to solve the dispute in a cooperative and respectful way.
Labour relations
Refers to activities that labour unions and managers engage in to resolve conflicts between employers and employees represented by a union that they have elected.
Communication networks
- Wheel network
- Circle
- All-channel (or star)
- Chain
- Y-pattern
Wheel network (communication network)
Indicated that all communication flows through one person, who is most likely the group leader.
Circle communication network
In which each person can communicate with two others located adjacent to them.
All-channel (or star) communication network
More decentralized and allows a free flow of information among all group members.
Chain communication network
Gives a flow of information among members, although the people are at the end of the chain.
Y-pattern communication network
Slightly less centralized than the all-channel network since two persons are closer to the centre of the network.
External communication
Refers to information that is shared with the public through marketing and public relations efforts.
These communication flows are important because leaders must create a positive impression with various stakeholders.
Internal communication
Refers to the communication transactions between individuals and/or groups at various levels and in different areas of specialization that is intended to design and redesign organizations, to implement designs, and to co-ordinate day-to-day activities.
Downward communication
Is essential to explain new policies or help an organisation adapt to change.
Lateral communication
Takes place among pears or members of the same team or work group.
This form may either support or challenge the information received in downward communication.
Upward communication
Refers to the process by which employees communicate with others who are higher in the organizational hierarchy.
Intercultural communication
Focuses on the behaviour of two individuals’ communication patterns.
What are the functions non verbal communication has in organisations?
- Display of personal attributes: it reveals information about a person’s personality, intentions, and attitudes.
- Establishment of dominance and hierarchy.
- Promotion of social functioning: followership and social coordination can be achieved via nonverbal displays of competence, prestige, and persuasion.
- Fostering high-quality relationships: eye-contact and facial expressions.
- Display of emotions: an employee’s emotional displays influence the emotional experiences of other employees due to the emotional contagion process.
