external factors influencing social class differences in achievement Flashcards
1
Q
what are the categories used by sociologists to determine a pupil’s social class based on parental occupation?
A
-
middle-class or non-manual occupations:
- professionals (eg doctors, teachers)
- managers and office workers (‘white-collar’)
- business owners
-
working-class or manual occupations:
- skilled workers (eg plumbers)
- semi-skilled workers (eg lorry drivers)
- unskilled or routine workers (eg cleaners)
2
Q
how does social class background influence a child’s success in the education system?
A
-
mc children:
- perform better on average than working-class children.
- do better at GCSE exams
- stay longer in full-time education
- take the majority of university places
-
wc children:
- typically have lower academic achievement
- the gap in achievement increases as children get older
3
Q
how does private education contribute to class differences in educational achievement?
A
-
private schools:
- better-off parents can afford to send their children to private schools
- private schools are believed to provide higher standard of education
- average class sizes in private schools are less than half of those in state schools
- private schools educate only 7% of Britain’s children but account for nearly half of all students at Oxford and Cambridge
- eg: Eton sent 211 pupils to Oxbridge in 3 years, while over 1,300 state schools sent no pupils
-
state education:
- class differences persist within state education, not just because of private schools.
- most sociological research focuses on why mc pupils do better than wc pupils in the state sector
4
Q
what are the internal and external factors that explain class differences in educational achievement?
A
-
internal factors (within schools):
- interactions between pupils and teachers
- inequalities between schools (eg resources, quality of education)
-
external factors (outside schools):
- influence of home and family background
- wider societal factors (eg social class background, economic conditions)
5
Q
when do class differences in children’s development and achievement appear, and what does research show?
A
-
early development:
- class differences appear early in life, even by age 3
- a study by the centre for longitudinal studies (2007) found that children from disadvantaged backgrounds are already up to one year behind those from more privileged homes by age 3
- the achievement gap widens as children grow older
6
Q
what is cultural deprivation and how does it relate to class differences in educational achievement?
A
- some sociologists claim that class differences in achievement are due to cultural deprivation
- cultural deprivation theorists argue that children acquire basic values, attitudes, and skills for success through primary socialisation in the family
- cultural equipment includes language, self-discipline, and reasoning skills
- wc families may fail to socialise their children adequately, leading to cultural deprivation
- children from these families lack the cultural equipment needed to succeed in school and tend to underachieve
- three main aspects of cultural deprivation: language, parents’ education, and working-class subculture
7
Q
how does parents’ communication affect children’s cognitive development?
A
- language is essential in education
- parents’ communication affects children’s cognitive (intellectual) development
- Hubbs-Tait et al (2002) found that language which challenges children to evaluate their understanding or abilities improves cognitive performance
- example of challenging language: ‘what do you think?’ ‘are you ready for the next step?’
- educated parents are more likely to use this type of language (Feinstein, 2008)
- Feinstein also found educated parents are more likely to use praise
- encourages children to develop a sense of their own competence
8
Q
how do less educated parents use language?
A
- use language that requires simple descriptive statements
- e.g., “what’s that animal called?”
- results in lower performance
9
Q
what do cultural deprivation theorists believe about language and social class?
A
- differences in how parents use language linked to social class
- Bereiter and Engelmann (1966) claim lower-class homes use deficient language
- communication in lower-class families often includes gestures, single words, or disjointed phrases
- children fail to develop necessary language skills
- grow up incapable of abstract thinking and unable to use language to explain, describe, enquire, or compare
- unable to take advantage of school opportunities
10
Q
what are the two speech codes identified by Bernstein (1975)?
A
- wc language and mc language
- influences achievement
- two types of speech code:
1) restricted code
2) elaborated code
11
Q
what are the characteristics of the restricted code?
A
- used by the wc
- limited vocab
- short, grammatically simple sentences
- often unfinished sentences
- predictable speech
- can involve single word or gesture
- descriptive, not analytic
- context-bound (speaker assumes listener has shared experiences)
12
Q
what are the characteristics of the elaborated code?
A
- used by the mc
- wider vocabulary
- longer, more complex sentences
- speech is varied
- communicates abstract ideas
- context-free (does not assume shared experiences)
- language used to spell out meanings explicitly
13
Q
how do speech code differences affect children in school?
A
- mc children have an advantage
- wc children at a disadvantage
- elaborated code used by teachers, textbooks, and exams
- elaborated code seen as the ‘correct’ way to speak and write
- elaborated code is a more effective tool for analysing, reasoning, and expressing thoughts
- essential for skills in education
14
Q
how does early socialisation affect mc and wc children in school?
A
- middle-class children are fluent in the elaborated code from early socialisation
- feel ‘at home’ in school
- more likely to succeed
- working-class children lack fluency in the code
- likely to feel excluded
- less likely to succeed
15
Q
how do critics view Bernstein, and what is his counter-argument?
A
- critics argue Bernstein is a cultural deprivation theorist because he describes working-class speech as inadequate
- unlike most cultural deprivation theorists, Bernstein recognises the role of school in influencing achievement
- he argues working-class pupils fail not due to cultural deprivation, but because schools fail to teach the elaborated code
16
Q
what did douglas (1964) find about working-class parents and education?
A
- cultural deprivation theorists argue parents’ attitudes to education affect children’s achievement
- early study by douglas found working-class parents placed less value on education
- less ambitious for their children
- gave less encouragement
- visited schools less often
- less likely to discuss children’s progress with teachers
- children had lower levels of motivation and achievement
17
Q
what did feinstein (2008) argue about parents’ education and children’s achievement?
A
- parents’ own education is the most important factor affecting children’s achievement
- middle-class parents tend to be better educated
- better education gives middle-class parents an advantage in socialising their children
- socialisation occurs in a number of ways:
- parenting style
- parents’ educational behaviours
- use of income
- class, income and parental education
18
Q
parenting style
A
- educated parents emphasise consistent discipline and high expectations
- this supports achievement by encouraging active learning and exploration
- less educated parents use harsh or inconsistent discipline
- their style emphasises doing as you’re told and behaving yourself
- this prevents children from learning independence and self-control
- leads to poorer motivation at school and problems interacting with teachers
19
Q
parents’ educational behaviours
A
- educated parents more aware of what is needed to assist children’s progress
- engage in reading to their children, teaching letters, numbers, songs, poems
- encourage painting and drawing, help with homework
- actively involved in their schooling
- able to get expert advice on childrearing
- more successful in establishing good relationships with teachers
- better at guiding children’s interactions with school
- recognise the educational value of activities like visits to museums and libraries
20
Q
use of income
A
- better-educated parents tend to have higher incomes
- Bernstein and Young found that they spend income on educational toys, books and activities that encourage reasoning skills and intellectual development
- middle-class mothers are more likely to buy these resources
- working-class homes are more likely to lack these resources
- children from working-class homes may start school without the intellectual skills needed to progress
- educated parents have a better understanding of nutrition and its importance in child development
- higher income allows them to buy more nutritious food
21
Q
class, income and parental education
A
- Feinstein notes that parental education influenced children’s achievement regardless of class or income
- even within the same social class, better-educated parents tend to have children who are more successful at school
- this explains why not all children of wc parents do equally badly
- also explains why not all children from mc families are equally successful
22
Q
what do cultural deprivation theorists argue about working-class parental interest in education?
A
- cultural deprivation theorists argue lack of parental interest reflects the subcultural values of the working class
- a subculture is a group with attitudes and values different from mainstream culture
- working-class subculture has different goals, beliefs, attitudes, and values
- this is why working-class children fail at school
- Sugarman (1970) argues the working-class subculture has four key features that act as a barrier to educational achievement
- fatalism, collectivism, immediate gratification and present-time orientation
23
Q
what is fatalism?
A
- belief in fate
- whatever will be, will be
- nothing you can do to change your status
- contrasts with middle-class values
- middle-class values say you can change your position through effort
24
Q
what is collectivism?
A
- valuing being part of a group
- more important than individual success
- contrasts with middle-class view
- middle-class view says individual shouldn’t be held back by group loyalties
25
what is immediate gratification?
- **seeking pleasure now**
- not making **sacrifices for future rewards**
- contrasts with **middle-class values**
- middle-class values emphasise **deferred gratification**
- **sacrifice now for greater rewards later**
26
what is present-time orientation?
- **present more important than future**
- no focus on **long-term goals**
- contrasts with **middle-class culture**
- middle-class has **future-time orientation**
- values **planning for the future**
27
why do working-class values lead to underachievement?
- **working-class children internalise subculture values** through **socialisation**
- leads to **underachievement at school**
- **sugarman** says value differences come from **job differences**
- **middle-class jobs** = **secure careers, chance to advance, encourage ambition, long-term planning, effort in education**
- **working-class jobs** = **less secure, no career structure, few promotions, early peak in earnings**
28
what do cultural deprivation theorists argue about socialisation?
- **parents pass on class values** through **primary socialisation**
- **middle-class values** = **equip children for success**
- **working-class values** = **fail to prepare children for success**
29
what is compensatory education?
- **tackles cultural deprivation**
- gives **extra resources** to schools and communities in **deprived areas**
- **early intervention** in socialisation
- **compensates for deprivation at home**
30
what is operation head start?
- **us programme** from the **1960s**
- part of **compensatory education**
- aimed at **pre-school children in poor areas**
- focused on **planned enrichment**
- developed **skills and achievement motivation**
- included **parenting support, nursery classes, home visits by psychologists**
- **sesame street** was part of it, taught **values, attitudes, skills** like **punctuality, numeracy, literacy**
31
what are examples of compensatory education in britain?
- **educational priority areas**
- **education action zones**
- **sure start** – aimed at **pre-school children and parents**
32
what is a criticism of cultural deprivation theory?
- draws attention to social background but criticised for being **victim-blaming**
- **nell keddie** (1973) calls it a **myth**
- says **working-class children aren't deprived**, just **culturally different**
- failure is due to **education system favouring middle-class values**
- system puts **working-class children at a disadvantage**
33
how should schools respond to working-class culture?
- **keddie** says schools should **recognise and build on strengths** of working-class culture
- should **challenge teachers' anti-working-class prejudice**
34
what do troyna and williams say about language in schools?
- problem is not **child's language**, but **school's attitude**
- teachers have a **speech hierarchy**
- **middle-class speech** ranked highest
- followed by **working-class speech**
- **black speech** ranked lowest
35
why do working-class parents attend fewer parents' evenings? (blackstone and mortimore)
- **not due to lack of interest**
- they work **longer or irregular hours**
- **put off by school's middle-class atmosphere**
- may want to help but **lack knowledge** and **education** to do so
- schools with mainly working-class pupils have **less effective parent-school contact systems**
- harder for parents to stay in touch about **children's progress**
36
what is material deprivation?
- refers to **poverty**
- **lack of material necessities** like **adequate housing** and **income**
- seen by many sociologists as the main cause of **underachievement**
- contrasts with **cultural deprivation theory**, which blames working-class subculture
37
how is poverty linked to educational underachievement?
- **poverty** closely linked to **underachievement**
- **Department for Education (2012)**: only **1/3** of pupils eligible for **free school meals (FSM)** achieve **5+ GCSEs at A*-C**, compared to **2/3** of others
- **jan flaherty** (2004): **money problems** cause **younger children's non-attendance**
- **exclusion and truancy** more common in **poorer families**
- **excluded children** unlikely to return to mainstream school
- **1/3** of **persistent truants** leave with **no qualifications**
- **90%** of **failing schools** are in **deprived areas**
38
how does poverty relate to social class and education?
- close link between **poverty and social class**
- **working-class families** more likely to have **low incomes** or **inadequate housing**
- these factors can affect children's **education** in several ways
39
how does poor housing affect pupils' achievement?
- **direct effects**:
- **overcrowding** makes it harder to study
- **less space** for educational activities
- no room for **homework, disturbed sleep**
- for young children, lack of space for **safe play and exploration**
- families in **temporary accommodation** face **frequent moves, school changes, and disrupted education**
- **indirect effects**:
- affects **health and welfare**
- crowded homes lead to **greater risk of accidents**
- **cold or damp housing** causes **ill health**
- **temporary accommodation** increases **psychological distress, infections, and accidents**
- health problems lead to **more school absences**
40
diet and health
- **howard**: **poor nutrition** leads to **lower energy, vitamin, and mineral intake**
- affects **health**, weakens **immune system**, lowers **energy levels**
- results in **more school absences** due to **illness**
- makes it harder to **concentrate** in class
- **children from poorer homes** more likely to have **emotional/behavioural problems**
- **wilkinson** (1996): lower social class = **higher rates of hyperactivity, anxiety, and conduct disorders**
- these issues negatively affect **education**
- **blanden and machin** (2007): **low-income children** more likely to engage in **externalising behaviour** (e.g., **fighting, temper tantrums**)
- **disrupts schooling**
41
financial support and costs of education
- **lack of financial support** means **children miss out** on essential **equipment and experiences**
- **bull** (1980): refers to this as **'the costs of free schooling'**
- **oxford study (tanner et al, 2003)**: costs of **transport, uniforms, books, computers, sports/music/art equipment** place **heavy burden** on poor families
- poor children may have to use **hand-me-downs** and **cheaper equipment**, leading to **isolation, stigmatisation, or bullying**
- **fear of stigmatisation** may prevent **eligible children** from taking **free school meals (quoted in ridge 2002)**
- **smith and noble** (1995): poverty blocks **access to private schooling, tuition, and quality schools**
- poor children often need to **work** (e.g., **babysitting, cleaning, paper rounds**)
- **ridge** found that **working** negatively affects **schoolwork**
- **Education Maintenance Allowances (EMAs)** were abolished in **2011** for poor students staying in education after 16 by coalition gov
42
fear of debt
- **university costs** lead to **debt** (tuition fees, books, living expenses)
- **working-class students** are more **debt averse** and see debt as negative
- **callender and jackson** (2005): debt aversion is a key factor in **deciding** to apply to university
- **debt averse students** (mostly working-class) are **5x less likely** to apply than **debt tolerant students** (mostly middle-class)
- **increase in tuition fees (2012)** may deter even more working-class students
- **UCAS (2012)**: UK applicants dropped by **8.6%** after fee increases
- **working-class students** receive **less financial support** from families
- **national union of students** (2010): only **43%** of working-class students get help from home, compared to **81%** of higher-class students
- only about **30%** of university students are from working-class backgrounds, though they make up **50%** of the population
43
how do financial factors affect working-class students' university experience?
- **financial factors** restrict **choice of university**
- more likely to apply to **local universities** to save on costs
- local universities may offer **less opportunity** for top-status universities
- more likely to **work part-time** to fund studies, affecting **academic performance**
- **dropout rates** higher for universities with many poor students (e.g., **London Metropolitan**: 16.6% and **Oxford**: 1.5%)
- **National Audit Office** (2002): working-class students spend **twice as much time** in paid work compared to middle-class students
44
is material deprivation the only factor affecting achievement?
- **material deprivation** is part of the explanation, but not the only factor
- some children from **poor families** succeed, suggesting other influences at play
- **family values** (cultural, religious, political) can **sustain motivation** despite poverty
- **feinstein**: **educated parents** contribute to **achievement** regardless of income
- **mortimore and whitty** (1997): **material inequalities** have the **greatest effect** on achievement
- **robinson** (1997): tackling **child poverty** would be the **most effective way** to boost achievement
45
how does Bourdieu explain educational success?
- **bourdieu** (1984) argues both **cultural and material factors** contribute to educational achievement
- these factors are **interrelated**, not separate
- **capital** is key to explaining mc success
- **economic capital**: **wealth**
- **educational capital**: **qualifications**
- **cultural capital**: **knowledge, skills, and cultural experiences**
- **middle-class** typically possess **more of all three types of capital**
46
what is cultural capital and how does it affect educational achievement?
- **cultural capital**: knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes, and abilities of the **middle class**
- gives **middle-class children** an advantage in education, like **wealth**
- **bourdieu**: middle-class children acquire the ability to **grasp, analyse, and express abstract ideas**
- middle-class children are more likely to develop **intellectual interests** and understand what the **education system requires for success**
- **education system** favours and rewards middle-class **cultural capital**
- **working-class children**'s culture is **devalued** by the system as **'rough'** and **inferior**
- lack of cultural capital leads to **exam failure** for working-class children
- many working-class pupils feel **education is not for them**, leading to **truancy, early leaving, or lack of effort**
47
how can different types of capital be converted, according to Bourdieu?
- **bourdieu** argues that **educational, economic, and cultural capital** can be **converted** into one another
- **middle-class children** with **cultural capital** are better equipped to meet school demands and gain **qualifications**
- **wealthier parents** convert **economic capital** into **educational capital** by sending children to **private schools** and paying for **extra tuition**
- leech and campos’ (2003): study of Coventry: **middle-class parents** can afford houses in **catchment areas** of **highly ranked schools**
- this process is called **'selection by mortgage'**
- it **drives up housing costs** near successful schools, **excluding working-class families**
48
what did Sullivan's study reveal about cultural capital and educational achievement?
- **sullivan** (2001) surveyed **465 pupils** to assess **cultural capital** through activities like **reading, TV viewing habits**, and visits to **art galleries, museums, and theatres**
- she also tested **vocabulary** and **knowledge of cultural figures**
- found that those who read **complex fiction** and watched **serious TV documentaries** had a **wider vocabulary** and **greater cultural knowledge**, indicating **greater cultural capital**
- pupils of **graduates** had the **greatest cultural capital** and were more likely to succeed at **GCSE**
- however, **cultural capital** only explained **part of the class difference** in achievement
- even with **equal cultural capital**, **middle-class pupils** still did better
- Sullivan concludes that **greater resources and aspirations** of **middle-class families** explain the rest of the class gap in achievement
49
contemporary
- **gentle vs. strict parenting**: recent debates suggest overly strict approaches may harm children's well-being, while gentle parenting is linked to better emotional and academic outcomes
- **income gap and elite education**: children from low-income families are less likely to access elite university courses, even when attending the same schools as wealthier peers.
- **bank of mum and dad**: parental financial support for tuition and housing gives children from wealthier families a major advantage, deepening social and educational divides.
- **maternal education influence**: research shows a mother's education level strongly affects a child's academic success, more so than paternal education or income.
- **civic engagement**: children of university-educated parents are more likely to participate in political and civic life, showing wider impacts of parental education.
- **unchanged class gap**: despite reforms, family background still strongly influences educational achievement over the past century.
- **covid-19 impact**: the pandemic worsened inequalities, with low-income families struggling to access online learning, widening the achievement gap.
