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Imported Study Blue Equine > export_chapter 5 dental anatomy > Flashcards

export_chapter 5 dental anatomy Flashcards

1
Q

What four things does pulp contain?

A
  • connective tissue
  • nerves
  • vaculature
  • lymphatics
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2
Q

What are the 4 components of pulp connective tissue?

A
  • fibroblasts
  • thick collagen fibers
  • network of fine reticulin cells
  • connective tissue cells
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3
Q

What can connective tissue cells of pulp do?

A
  • differentiate into odontoblasts if stimulated
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4
Q

What separates the pulp from dentin?
How does this layer change with age in brachydont teeth?
What does this layer contain?

A

A thin layer of predentin
Gets thinner
Odontoblasts

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5
Q

Describe the pulp of a horse at eruption

A
  • large common pulp
  • primordial pulp surrounding the apex
  • primordial pulp is surrounded by thin layer of enamel
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6
Q

Describe pulp two years after tooth eruption in horse

A
  • dentin and cementum is deposited a root apex

- separate pulp horns develop 1 year after eruption

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7
Q

How many pulp horns does each tooth have?

A
  • 07-10 have 5
  • 06 and mandibular 11 have 6
  • maxillary 11 have 7
  • incisors have 1
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8
Q

How does the hypsodont apical foramen differ from the brachydont apical formen?
Why?

A
  • remains relatvely dilated for a prolonged period although does reduce in size with age
  • must supply the odontoblasts so they can continue to make secondary dentin to over most of the life of the horse to prevent pulp exposure
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9
Q

How do the apical foramen change with time?

A
  • become slightly narrower and get displaced occlusaly by continued cementum deposition at apex
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10
Q

What did Kirkland find in equine mandibular cheek teeth at 5-8 years of age?

A
  • closed apical foramina with two apical foramena in rostral root.
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11
Q

How does pulp exposure in hypsodont teeth differ from brachydont teeth?

A
  • often can withstand inflammation from pulp exposure due to good blood supply allowing macs and extravasated WBC to control pulpar infection
  • odontoblasts can lay down tertiary dentin to seal exposed pulp from healthy pulp
  • if not enough odontoblasts, undifferentiated connective tissue cells, or fibroblasts can transform into odontoblasts.
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12
Q

What two places is secondary dentin deposited in horse teeth?
What does this result in?

A
  • occlusal surface
  • pulp horn walls
  • narrowed pulp size
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13
Q

What is difference in dentin content of teeth in young and old horses and what is consequence?

A
  • young horses have high proportion of enamel to dentin, older horses have more dentin vs enamel
  • young teeth more prone to shatter during floating, old teeth harder to float
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14
Q

What is content of cementum?

A
  • 65% inorganic (mostly impure hydroxyappetite crystal)

- 35% organic and water content (makes it flexible)

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15
Q

What composes organic part of cementum?

A
  • collagen fibers
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16
Q

What type of fibers do cementoblasts make?

What type of fibers to fibroblasts make?

A
  • small intrinsic fibrils

- large extrinsic fibrils

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17
Q

What do the large extrinsic fibrils of cementum make?

A
  • sharpey’s fibers
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18
Q

What are two types of cementum in horse teeth based on appearance?

A
  • regular and irregular
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19
Q

Where is regular cementum found?

A

In the peripheral cementum

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20
Q

Where is irregular cementum found?

A
  • adjacent to the peripheral amelocemental junction

- In the maxillary cheek teeth infundibular cementum

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21
Q

Is cementum a live or inert tissue in horse teeth?

A
  • live in the subgingival area and a few mm more occlusally b/c has cementoblasts nourished by vasculature of the PDL
  • inert on the clinical crown b/c loose blood supply from cementum
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22
Q

What is most adaptable of calicified dental tissues? Evidenced by what?

A
  • cementum

- ability to respond to infection or trauma by quickly depositing within the alveolus or subgingivally

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23
Q

Where is cementum at eruption and how does this change?

A

Entire tooth covered by cementum with infundibular incompletely filled.
Worn away soon after eruption

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24
Q

What is function of cementum on all teeth?

On hypsodont teeth?

A
  • protect the tooth
  • anchor the fibers of the PDL
  • strengthen the clinical crown
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25
Q

What happens as tooth ages that leads to smooth mouth?

A
  • Teeth worn so only root remains made of dentin and cement so no enamel and wears really quickly
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26
Q

What percent of upper cheek teeth had gross caries in the Kilic study?

A
  • 24%
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27
Q

What is central infundibular cemental hypoplasia?

What percent of horses in the Kilic study had this?

A
  • central vascular channels running through the infundibular cement from occlusal surface to variable depth with lateral channels extending as far as the infundibular enamel
  • 65%
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28
Q

What is junctional cemental hypoplasia?
Where is this commonly found?
Is it clinically signficant?

A
  • Linear areas of cementum hypoplasia in infundibula at enamel junction
  • incisor infundibula
  • No (incisors hardly ever get caries)
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29
Q

What is dentin made of?

A
  • 70% minerals (mostly hydorxyapatite crystals)

- 30% organic components (collagen and mucospolysaccharides)

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30
Q

What causes irregular surface of horse teeth?

Why is this good?

A
  • Softer dentin and cementum wears away faster than enamel

- rougher surface, better grinding

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31
Q

What are three main types of dentin?

What are subdivisions?

A 
Primary dentin
Secondary dentin (regular and irregular)
Tertiary dentin (reactionary or reparative)
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32
Q

What is the difference between reactionary dentin and reparative dentin?

A
  • reactionary dentin forms after local insult from original odontoblasts
  • reparative froms from newly deifferentiated mesenchymal cells
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33
Q

Where does irregular dentin form?

A
  • subocclusally in the center of the pulp cavity (laid down last)
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34
Q

What is depth of occlusal secondary dentin in the mandible?

- maxilla?

A
  • 10.8 mandible

- 9.0 maxilla

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35
Q

What is tooth’s initial response to injury, caries, excessive attrition?

A
  • sclerosis of primary dentin tubules
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36
Q

What is difference in appearance of dentin in horse tooth and why?

A
  • primary has high levels of heavily mineralized intratubular dentin so is translucent
  • secondary is less mineralized and has dull opaque appearance and stains from food pigments so is dark brown
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37
Q

Do odontoblasts reach the amelodentinal junction in horses?

A

Yes

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38
Q

Do horses experience pain from odontoblasts reaching the surface?
What is a theory about why?

A
  • most likely not except if damaged (eg reducing larger overgrowths)
  • may be calcified
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39
Q

Which has higher mineral content-intertubular dentin or intratubular dentin?
What is consequence of this?

A
  • intratubular dentin

- more resistant to wear

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40
Q

What prevents horse teeth from being infected by microorganisms in the patent dental tubules?

A
  • smear layer

- retrograde flow of fluid in tubules towards occlusal surface

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41
Q

Is secondary dentin porous?

Does it contain odontoblasts?

A
  • no tubules are obliterated

- no tubules are obliterated

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42
Q

Which is more wear resistant regular secondary vs primary?

Why?

A

primary

secondary contains no intratubular dentin

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43
Q

Which primary dentin has the lowest intratubular dentin?

Does it wear faster?

A
  • amelodentinal junction dentin

- no, protected by the enamel

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44
Q

What is most hardest and most dense substance in the body?

A
  • enamel
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45
Q

What is mineral content of enamel?
Is it opaque or translucent?
Why?

A
  • 96-98% (hydroxyappetite)
  • translucent
  • high mineral content
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46
Q

What is origin of enamel?
Of cementum?
Of dentin?

A
  • ectoderm
  • mesenchyme
  • mesenchyme
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47
Q

What is organic component of enamel?

A
  • keratin family of proteins
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48
Q

What is enamel usually covered by in the horse mouth?

  • where are the exceptions to this?
  • why does this happen?
A
  • dull, chalky, peripheral cementum
  • rostral incisors, occlusally on the cheek teeth
  • cementum worn away
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49
Q
  • is enamel a “living” tissue?
  • why or why not?
  • what is consequence of this?
A
  • almost dead
  • ameloblasts die off as soon as tooth is fully formed
  • can’t repair itself
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50
Q

What are different arrangements of enamel in horse teeth?

A
  • prisms +/- prism sheath

- less structured interprismatic enamel

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51
Q

What are three types of enamel in horse teeth?

A
  • Type 1 - round/oval prisms in parallel rows between flat plates of dense interprismatic enamel
  • Type 2 - horseshoe to keyhole prisms with no interprismatic enamel - amelocemental junction
  • Type 3 - honeycomb structure of prisms surrounded by interprismatic enamel sometimes present as thin layer at amelodentinal and amelocemental junction
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52
Q

What type of enamel is found in the maxillary cheek teeth?
The mandibular cheek teeth?
The incisors?

A
  • More type 1 than 2 (but almost all folds have both)
  • Equal type 1 and 2
  • Amost all type 2
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53
Q

What is orientation of type 1 vs type 2 enamel?

A
  • type 1 45%

- type 2 various angles

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54
Q

How does type 1 enamel resist wear?

How does type 2 resist wear?

A
  • dense interprismatic plates

- decussation (interweaving with changes of direction of bundles of enamel prisms that run in 3 dimensions

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55
Q

What prevents fine microfractures in cheek teeth enamel?

Do fractures ever extend into pulp?

A
  • cementum and dentin

- yes

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56
Q

How do donkeys differ from horses?

A
  • maxillary cheek teeth have equal amounts of type 1 and type 2 enamels
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57
Q

What are three phases of tooth development?

A
  • initiation
  • morphogenic
  • cyctodifferentiative
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58
Q

Describe the first stage of tooth development (pre-bud stage)

A
  • horseshoe shaped epithelial thickening along the lateral margin of the fetal oral cavity (primary epithelial band)
  • this invaginates into the underlying mesenchymal tisse to form two ridges, the vestibular lamina and caudal to it the dental lamina
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59
Q

Describe the bud stage of tooth development

A
  • dental lamina produces a serious of epthelial swellings called tooth buds along its buccal margin
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60
Q

Describe the cap stage of tooth development

A
  • mesenchymal cells beneath the ectodermal tooth buds proliferated and invaginate into tooth buds
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61
Q

What are the cap shaped structures of the cap stage called?

A
  • enamel organs
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62
Q

What develop from the enamel organ of the dental laminae?

A
  • all deciduous teeth and the molar teeth.
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63
Q

How do permanent incisor teeth, permanent canine teeth, and permanent premolar teeth form?
What is consequence of this related to permanent incisors?

A
  • from lingual/medial extensions of the dental laminae of the deciduous teeth.
  • deciduous incisor teeth displaced labially by permanent teeth
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64
Q

Describes what happens between the cap and bell stage

A
  • mesenchymal cells proliferate within concave part of the enamel organ and become the dental papilla that eventually ameks dentin and pulp.
  • mesenchymal cells extend peripherally to form the dental sac or follicle that surounds the enamel organ and dental papilla until tooth eruption occurs.
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65
Q

What is a tooth germ?

A
  • combined enamel organ, dental papilla, dental sac that makes an individual tooth
66
Q

What is the bell stage of tooth development?

A
  • enamel organ proliferates further and forms a concave, bell like shape in brachydont teeth
67
Q

What happens in the bell-like stage of hypsodont teeth?

A
  • incisors and maxillary cheek teeth, invaginations of enamel epithelium that will later become infudibula develop from convex part of the bell into papilla
68
Q

How many invaginations of enamel epithelium form in incisors and maxillary CT?

A
  • one incisors

- two maxillary CT

69
Q

Where do the cusps of equine CT develop from?

A
  • protrusions on the convex aspect of the bell
70
Q

Where do the peripheral infoldings of equine CT come from?

A
  • peripheral infoldings of the enamel organ
71
Q

What are the major cytodifferentiative events?

When do most of them occur?

A
  • ectodermal cells lining concave aspect of enamel organ become internal enamel epithelium
  • ectodermal cells lining the convex aspect of the enamel organi form the external enamel epithelium
  • stellate reticulum forms between the layers for nutrative and mechanical functions during enamel formation
  • between the cap and bell stage
72
Q

What do the internal enamel epithelial cells become?

A
  • tall columnar cells with large proximately located nuclei inducing alterations at the molecular level in underlying dental papilla to make uppermost cells enlarge to form odontoblasts
73
Q

What do the newly formed odontoblasts do?

What happens to internal epithelium after that?

A
  • lay down along basal membrane a layer of dentin. Then basal membrane disintigrates
  • overlying internal enamel epitheleal cells differentiate into ameloblasts and begin to produce enamel.
74
Q

What do early ameloblasts do?

A
  • deposit structureless enamel layer, migrate away from enamel-dentinal interface and form projection called Tomes process at distal aspect.
75
Q

What does Tomes process do?

A
  • proximal aspect of process forms interprismatic enamel

- surface of Tome’s process form enamel prisms

76
Q

What are two phases of enamel, dentin and cementum formation?

A
  • first secretion of extra cellular matrix of mucopolysaccharides and organic fibers
  • then mineralization
77
Q

Where does mineralization begin in multi-cusped teeth?

A
  • at each cusp tip, progressing down towards the amelodentinal junction
78
Q

Why don’t odontoblasts and ameloblasts get trapped in their own secretions?

A
  • move in opposite directions
79
Q

What age does calcification of deciduous CT buds start and end in horses?
Which develop first?
When does calcificaion of first permanent tooth bud start?

A
  • starts around 120th day of fetal life
  • ends by 240 days
  • 06s
  • about 6 months later
80
Q

Where and when does vascularization start in brachydont teeth?
How is enamel epithelium supplied prior to this?

A
  • at the periphery of the tooth germ at early cap stage, then grow into dental sac and dental papilla
  • mesenchymal capillaries
81
Q

What happens to the connection between enamel epithelium and dental papilla when dentinal and enamel mineralization starts?
How is the enamel nourished?

A
  • lose the connection

- surrounding dental sac

82
Q

In brachydont teeth, what happens once the crown is formed?

What does new structure do?

A
  • external and internal enamel epithelial cells at cervical region proliferate over dental papilla forming Hertwig’s epitheleal root sheath.
  • root sheath induces underlying mesenchymal cells to differentiate into odontoblasts that produce dentin
  • sheath disintigrates and and dental sac cells come into contact with dentin which makes the dental sac mesenchymal cells tranform into cementoblasts and make cementum
83
Q

What happens in equine teeth regarding cementum deposition that differs from brachydont teeth?

A
  • deposited over whole tooth
84
Q

What happens to epithelial root sheath when equine tooth has reached full length and what is consequence?

A
  • distintigrates

- can no longer make enamel

85
Q

What are cementoblasts supplied by in the infundibula
What happens to blood supply after eruption?
What is consequence of this in terms of cementum filling infundibula?

A
  • dental sac and openings in apical aspect of infundibula
  • dental sac gets destroyed by mastication so cementun no longer has any occlusal blood supply so is effectively “dead” however, apical cementum can be nourished from apex
  • can result in central infundibular cemental hypoplasia
86
Q

What percent of the tooth in a young adult horse is clinical crown?
Reserve crown?

A
  • 10-15%

- 90 - 85%

87
Q

What are two parts of reserve crown?

A
  • alveolar

- gingival

88
Q

What is average length of fibers in equine feces?

89
Q

What is rate of eruption of hypsodont teeth?
What is rate of attrition on grass?
What other food produce this rate of attrition?

A
  • 2-3 mm/year
  • same
  • hay or silage
90
Q

What are teeth with a limited growth period called?

Are hypsodonts in this category?

91
Q

Do horse teeth have roots at eruption?
What part of the tooth is considered the root?
What do roots do after tooth is completely erupted?

A
  • not true roots
  • The part without enamel
  • result in further growth of tooth for a year or so
92
Q

What does apical refer to in horses?

A
  • the bottom of the tooth even before it has roots
93
Q

What percentage of teeth have no roots at 12 months?

94
Q

Why do mandibular CT in horses have more peripheral enamel infolding?

A
  • no infundibula
95
Q

When do deciduous 01s erupt?
02s?
O3s?

A
  • 2-3 days
  • 4-6 weeks
  • 6-9 months
96
Q

How do you distinguish deciduous incisors than permanent?

A
  • whiter, wider, shallower infundibula
97
Q

What is deciduous formula of deciduous teeth?

Permanent teeth?

A

2 (i3/3, c0/0, pm3/3) 24 teeth

2 (i3/3, c 1/1 or 0/0, pm 3/3 or 4/4, M 3/3 (36-44 teeth)

98
Q

What are first premolar teeth called?

A
  • wolf teeth
99
Q

What is the enamel spot and which teeth is it found on?

A
  • ring of enamel left behind when infundibular cavity of incisor teeth gets worm away
100
Q

What is the dental star and where is it found?

How does it change over time?

A
  • regular and irregular dentin on the occlusal surface of incisor teeth that has been deposited in the former pulp cavity.
  • starts out as a yellow (due to food staining) transverse line at the labial aspect of the infundibulum and becomes oval with wear and moves to center of occlusal surface
101
Q

What is Galvayne’s groove?
When does it appear?
When does it reach occlusal surface?

A
  • longitudinal groove that appears on labial aspect of permanent upper 03s
  • 10
  • 20
102
Q

What is a 7 year notch (or hook)?

A
  • overgrowth on the caudolabial aspect of the occlusal surface of 103 and 203 that appears around 6 years of age from incomplete contact between upper and lower 07s
103
Q

How does the cross-sectional shape of incisor teeth change with age?

A
  • start out elliptical, then become round, triangular then oval, especially lower 01s and 02s
104
Q

What do deciduous canine teeth look like?

A
  • vestigial spicule structures 0.5 -1 cm long that do not erupt above the gums
105
Q

When do adult canine teeth erupt?

106
Q

Why do canine teeth get calculus?

A

No occlusal contact

107
Q

What percentage of mares have canine teeth?

in donkeys?

A
  • 7.8 - 28% horses

- 17.3-30%

108
Q

How long are canine teeth in thoroughbred, how much in unerupted crown in young horse?
what is consequence?

A
  • 5-7 cm
  • as little as 10-20%
  • hard to extract
109
Q

Why is reduction of canine teeth in horses not recommended

A
  • pulp in young horses can be within 5 mm of occlusal surface
110
Q

What is unique about wolf teeth?

How long are roots?

A
  • they are brachydont

- 0 - >30 mm in length

111
Q

When do wolf teeth erupt?

A
  • 6-12 months of age
112
Q

What is prevalence of wolf teeth in males?
females?
both?

A
  • 14.9%
  • 24.4 %
  • 13-31.9%
113
Q

When do deciduous pms erupt?

A

at birth or shortly after

114
Q

When do permanent PMs erupt?

A

06 - 2.5
07 - 3
08 - 4

115
Q

How are deciduous cheek teeth differ from permanent teeth in shape?

A
  • have a neck
116
Q

When do the molar teeth erupt?

A

09 1
10 2
11 3.5

117
Q

Which are more square-maxillary teeth or mandibular teeth?

118
Q

What are the ridges on the buccal aspects of upper cheek teeth called? How many are they and what do they look like?
What is exception?

A
  • cingula, styles
  • 2 vertical rostrally and less prominent caudal ridge with two deep grooves between
  • 6s that have 3-4 small grooves and ridges.
119
Q

How do cingula correlate with points?

A
  • horses with prominent cingula more likely to develop maxillary poitns
120
Q

Does the mandible have cingula?

A
  • less prominant
121
Q

How many roots do the upper cheek teeth have?

A
  • usually 3 (two lateral and one flat medial) but medial root can divide into 2 roots.
122
Q

How many roots do the lower cheek teeth have?

What is exception?

A
  • 2

- the 11s have 3

123
Q

Where are the alveoli of the upper 06s and 07s (and sometimes the rostral 08)?

A
  • the maxillary bone
124
Q

Where are the alveoli of the caudal 08 and the 09?

The alveoli of the 10s and 11s?

A
  • in the rostral maxillary sinus

- in the caudal maxillary sinus

125
Q

What can be the result of periapical infections of the caudal cheek teeth?

A
  • sinus empyema
126
Q

Are diastema in incisor teeth a problem?

In CT?

A
  • no

- yes because food accumlates in space

127
Q

What is curve of spee?
What breeds is this marked in?
Where else can there be a curve?

A
  • caudal 2-3 cheek teeth curve dorsally in caudal direction.
  • arabian with dished face
  • rostral teeth
128
Q

What is anisognathia and is it normal in horses?

A
  • wider maxillary tooth “arch” than mandible

- yes

129
Q

What is normal range of side to side angulation of horse teeth?
How else are they angled?

A
  • 15 - 35degrees

- also dorsal on lingual to ventral on buccal

130
Q

What is shear mouth and what causes it?

A
  • excessive angulation (> 45 degrees in caudal mandible) from concentrate diet
131
Q

What is a cusp in a horse tooth?
A ridge or style?
A transverse ridge?
How many transverse ridges does a horse have?

A
  • elevation on occlusal surface from thicker enamel
  • linear elevation on occlusal surface or periphery of tooth
  • ridges that run on occlusal surface of CT
  • 12
132
Q

What is the cusp pattern of horse teeth?

A
  • lophodont (crest teeth)
133
Q

What are two kinds of alveolar bone?

A

compact bone that lines alveolus (lamina dura) into which Sharpeys fibers insert
main alveolar bone

134
Q

What are the main equine salivary glands?

Where else is there salivary tissue?

A
  • parotid, mandibular, sublingual

- lips, tongue, palate and buccal regions

135
Q

What is the largest salivary gland and how much does it weigh?

A
  • parotid

- 200 gm

136
Q

How much saliva does a thoroughbred produce in 1 min?

137
Q

What is grass gland?

A

When the parotid salivary gland enlarges and protrudes above the masseter muscle when horses are turned out to grass.

138
Q

What is sometimes embedded in the parotid gland?

What structures does the parotid gland cover?

A
  • jugular
  • stylohyoid bone, carotid artery, facial nerve, guttural pouch, origins of the brachycephalicus and sternocephalicus muscles
139
Q

What muscles separate the parotid salivary gland from the mandibular salivary gland?

A
  • sternocephalicus

- brachiocephalicus

140
Q

What tissue is found at the dorsal aspect of the salivary gland?
What diseases is this tissue significant in?

A
  • lymphoid

- strangles or other purulent tissues-causes distention of the tissue

141
Q

Where does parotid duct enter the mouth?

142
Q

Is the mandibular salivary gland palpable in the horse?

143
Q

What is the course of the mandibular salivary duct in the horse?

A
  • travels the full length of the oral cavity beside the sublingual salivary gland, enters on the lateral aspect of the sublingual caruncle
144
Q

Where is the sublingual salivary gland?

A

From symphysis to 09 with multiple small ducts into the mouth

145
Q

What kinds of mucosa are there in gingiva and hard palate and how is it connected to subQ tissue of horses?
What is consequence of attachment to subQ tissue?

A
  • keratinized, orthokeratinized ro parakeratinized with deep rete pegs into subQ tissue
  • limited mobility
146
Q

What is gingival sulcus of horse lined by?

A

non-keratinized mucosa

147
Q

Where is most common rostral fracture site?

A
  • suture between incisive bone and maxilla
148
Q

What causes focal swelling in young horses rostrally?

A
  • eruption cysts of 06-08s
149
Q

What muscle must be displaced in the horse to allow local bolock of infraorbital nerve?
What does this block anesthetize

A
  • levator labii superioris muscle

- upper 06, maybe 07

150
Q

What is chewing power stroke in dogs?
In horses?
What is horse power stroke called?

A
  • vertical
  • transverse in lingual direction
  • lingual power stroke
151
Q

What are most important masticatory muscles in the horse?
What are they innervated by?
What innervates the facial muscles (muscles of expression)?

A
  • pterygoideus, masseter
  • mandibular branch of the 5th CN
  • 7th CN
152
Q

What muscle opens the mouth?

A
  • digastricus
153
Q

Which is larger in the horse, the coronoid or the condyle?

154
Q

What muscle opens the mouth?

A
  • temporalis
155
Q

What is the difference between carnivore temporalis muscle and coronoid process and equine?
Why?

A
  • much larger in carnivores

- carnivores need to crush prey

156
Q

Does the TMJ have a joint capsule?

Does it have ligaments in the horse?

A
  • yes

- indistinct lateral and elastic posterior

157
Q

When do the equine mandibles fuse?

A

2-3 months`

158
Q

What are osseus tubercles?
When do they occur, when do they go away?
What predisposes horses to forming these?

A
  • mandibular eruption cysts due to imblance between mandibular depth and tooth length
  • 3-5 years of age, over next 1-2 years unless they fistulate
  • maybe from crossing between horses with shallow mandibles and short reserve crown (warmbloods) and horses with deep mandible and long reserve crowns (coldbloods)
159
Q

Where does the mental nerve emerge in horses?

A
  • mental foramen halfway between 06s and incisors
160
Q

What anatomical weakness results in sequestration of alveolar lining in some cases after oral extraction of cheek teeth.

A
  • spongy and porous bone beneath lamina dura in horses (probably due to constant remodeling b/c similar to bone in children)
161
Q

Where do nerves enter the tooth?
Where do they go and what do they form?
Where do they come from?

A

-apical foramen for sensory nerves
Plexus of Rachkow in the coronal region
- CN5 for sensory nerves, cervical ganglion for sympathetic fibers that supply vascular smooth muscles that control blood flow to the pulp and differentiation and function of odontoblasts

162
Q

What most likely causes post-rasping pain in horses?

A
  • damaged dentin or pulp expousure

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