Exploiting Innovation

Question 1

Microbiome

Answer 1

“The entire habitat, including the microorganisms , their genomes , and the surrounding environmental conditions”

Question 2

Metagenome, and metagenomics

Answer 2

“The collection of genomes and genes from the members of a microbiota. This collection is obtained through shotgun sequencing of DNA extracted from a sample (metagenomics) followed by assembly or mapping to a reference database followed by annotation…Metagenomics is the process used to characterize the metagenome, from which information on the potential function of the microbiota can be gained.”1

Question 3

Microbes as pesticides

Answer 3

The control of insect and other invertebrate pests. Case studies: Bacillus thuringiensis, baculoviruses and pseudomonads.

Question 4

Main aims for microbial inoculant use

Answer 4

1. Control crop diseases and pest management
2. Improve crop nutrition
3. Promote plant growth-
   Microbial inoculants and manipulation of phytobiomes for promotion of plant growth. The uses of nitrogen-fixing bacteria in symbiotic associations and fungal mycorrhizae colonising plant roots.
4. Enhance sustainable agricultural practice
5. Improve human and animal health
6. Improve animal live weight gain

Question 5

Biological control

Answer 5

Over the past 120 years, more than 5000 introductions of approximately 2000 non-native control agents have been made against arthropod pests in 196 countries or islands with remarkably few environmental problems.

Question 6

Bt crops

Answer 6

Current studies indicate that genetically modified insect-resistant Bt crops may have no adverse effects on the activity or function of predators or parasitoids used in biological control

Question 7

Markets for bioinoculants in agriculture

Answer 7

Share of total agrochemicals:

• herbicides: 2%
• insecticides: 5%
• fungicides: 10%
• plant growth regulators 6%

Question 8

Pro’s for agrochemicals

Answer 8

• reduced costs
  -reduced lead time
• viable small markets
  -integrated,
  less resistance
  -versatile manu
  environmental acceptance

Question 9

Cons for agrochemicals

Answer 9

reliability,
effiacy
ativity
action 
duration of control 
formulation 
application 
patents 
gems registration 
image

Question 10

Estimated total global market for all types of bio pesticides in. 2014
($ US MILLIONS)

Answer 10

BACTERIA: $2516.5 (MILL) 
FUNGI: $288.9 (mill)
PREDATORS: $247 .2 (MILL)
VIRUS: $155 (MILL)
OTHERS $91.9 (MILL)
TOTAL: $3300 (MILL)

Question 11

COMPOUND ANNUAL GROWTH RATE OF BIOPESTICIDES (2009-2014)

Answer 11

BACTERIA: 16.1%
FUNGI: 13.9%
PREDATORS: 14.4%
VIRUS 14.2%
OTHERS 14,3%
TOTAL: 15.6

Question 12

Estimated sales of microbial biopesticides by type ($US million)
BY COUNTRY
in2010

Answer 12

TOTAL 
North America: 126.76 (mill)
Europe: 54.48 (mill)
Asia and Australasia:  132.5
Latin America: 74.67
Africa and Middle East: 8.07

Question 13

Cost of product development agrochemicals vs inoculants

Answer 13

Activity	Chemical	-M$-	 Microbial
R & D		10				2
Market base		20				3
Toxicology		10				0.5
Patents		defined			complex
Discovery		0.01%		directed
Efficacy		100%			variable

Question 14

To be a serious candidate for commercialization a new CP and E must satisfy the following requirements (pt 1, 4 anwsers)

Answer 14

1. Must be customer demand
2. Market size has to be large enough to permit a satisfactory return on investment within a reasonable period of time
3. Broad spectrum activity is desirable for maximising market size
4. Manufacture must be achievable in a cost effecive manner.

Question 15

To be a serious candidate for commercialisation a new CP and E must satisfy the following requirements

Answer 15

5) Performance must be high and reliable
6) Persistance of the compound in the environment should be long enough to achieve the desired effect, without the need for regular application which may be uneconomic but conversely it must eventually be biodegradable so as to pose no threats to the environment and to ensure repeat sales,
7) the product should be free from toxicological problems
8) The end-user formation must have a minimum shelf life of 2 years at room temp., be easy to handle and insensitive to abuse. It must be stable over the range -5 to 30 degrees c
9) Have to be differentiated from other products similar on grounds of performance, cost or ease of handling.

Question 16

Markets for biocontrol agents pt 1

Answer 16

The global market for phytosanitary products used worldwide to
ensure crop yield was estimated at US$26.7 billion in 2005 [73].
Synthetic pesticides dominate this market. However, irrational
selection and use led to environmental toxicity of their residues,
decrease or loss of efficacy due to adaptation of pathogens, or
undesirable effects on non-target organisms sharing the ecosystem.
Furthermore, homologation procedures for new chemical products
request more and more supplementary toxicological, and thus
expensive, studies and the consumer concern for safer food and for
more ecologically compatible plant disease management practices is
growing fast. The use of chemicals has therefore been declining since
2000 and will probably follow the same trend in the next few years.

Question 17

Markets for Biocontrol Agent

Answer 17

These organisms include plants (genetically modified crops), insects, nematodes and microorganisms. Their overall contribution to plant health management is currently relatively small, representing 2.5% of total agricultural sales. However, the gowth rate of biopesticides is estimated to be 10% per annum for the next five years and is expected to reach a billion dollars by 2010.
Among these biopesticides, microorganism-based products (bacteria,
fungi, virus, yeasts) represent 30% of total sales and new products
are regularly brought to the market . These beneficial microbes, also termed biological control (or biocontrol) agents, represent an environmentally friendly alternative to chemicals and offer different modes of action for combatting pathogens.

Question 18

Manipulating microbiomes: Phytobiome

Answer 18

Communication can occur through signal degradation (D), mimicry (M), or inhibition (I) by other community members, including plants (leaf), bacteria (bacteria), fungi (hyphae), or insects (insect). Plants produce signals delivered either in root or leaf exudates that are perceived (P) by other community members. Plants also perceive signals from diverse community members that activate or enhance activation (A) of localized or systemic responses and that culminate in changes in plant development, health, and productivity Cell. 2017 May 4;169(4):587-596. doi

Question 19

Endophyticbacteria in root zone

Answer 19

• colonize the internal tissues of their host plant and can form a range of different relationships including symbiotic, mutualistic, commensalistic and trophobiotic.
• some may be transmitted through the seed.
• promote plant growth and yield and can act as biocontrol agents
• . Endophytes beneficial to host by producing range of natural products that could be harnessed for potential use in medicine, agriculture or industry.
• potential to remove soil contaminants by enhancing phytoremediation, play a role in soil fertility through phosphate solubilization and nitrogen fixation

Question 20

Cost benefit ratio for classical biological control

Cost benefit for augmentive control

Answer 20

The cost–benefit ratio for classical biological control is highly favourable (1 : 250) and for augmentative control is similar to that of insecticides (1 : 2–1 : 5), with much lower development costs.