explanations for forgetting Flashcards
what are the explanations for forgetting?
interference
retrieval failure
what is interference?
when one memory prevents the retrieval of another memory
what are the 2 types of interference?
proactive
retroactive
what is proactive interference?
when older memory interferes with a newer memory
e.g. teacher struggles to remember names of new class because she’s learnt so many names in the past
what was the study for proactive interference?
Keppel and Underwood
where ppts are presented with 3 letter consonant trigrams at different intervals to prevent rehearsal had to count back wards in 3s before recalling —> ppts typically remembered trigrams presented first
- similar to Peterson and Peterson 1959
what is retroactive interference?
when a new memory prevents the recall of an older memory
e.g getting new phone number so forgetting old one
what was the study for retroactive interference?
Baddley and Hitch 1977
- sample was rugby players who had played every match in the season and players who had missed some games due to injury. Length of time of season= same for all players who were asked to recall names of teams they had played earlier that season
—> players who had played more games forgot more than those who had injuries
eval of interference - 1
evidence for interference effects in everyday situations from Baddley and Hitch = increased ecological validity
BUT conditions necessary for interference= rate to occur naturally so many lab research is used using artificial tasks e.g recalling lists of words= decrease ecological validity (Keppel and Underwood BUT control over confounding variables = ensures clear link between interference and forgetting)
eval of interference- 2
interference is temporary, using hints or cues can help with remembering previously forgotten info
—> Tulving and Botka 1971 gave ppts lists of words organised into categories, one list at a time —> recall avg was 70% first list then became worse as ppts tried to learn other lists (PI)
BUT
at end cues were given to ppts and recall rose to 70% again —> shows inference = causes temporary loss of ability to material that is still in LTM—> not predicted by interference theory
eval of interference- 3
support from drug studies —> Coenan and Luijtelaar gave ppts lists of words and later asked them to recall —> found whne list of words learnt under drug diazepam recall one week later= poor compared to placebo control group —> BUT when lots learned before drug was taken later recall better than placebo so drug actually improved recall of material beforehand
—> Wixted suggests drugs prevent new info reaching part of brain involved in processing memories = can’t interfere retroactively with info already stored
eval of interference- 4
Research support
McGeoch and Mcdonald 1931
—> ppts given list A of adj. to learn then after learnt given a list B which was different to learn and varied in similarity to list A
—> recall worse if lists were closest in similarity = supports retroactive interference
—> research doesn’t support why forgetting occurs in situations when info is dissimilar (only supports interference is likely to occur when info is similar)
what is retrieval failure due to?
due to absence of cues —> memory is available but not accessible unless cues are provided
what is a cue?
a hint/trigger that can help retrieve a memory e.g. linked to environment and surroundings and internal= linked to mood/emotions
what is the encoding specificity principle
Tulving 1983 proposed that if a cue is to be helpful in rembering info then it must be:
- present during encoding (when we learn the material)
- present during retrieval (when we are recalling it)
—> if cue does not meet criteria then info may be forgotten
example of cue having a meaningful link.
many cues have meaningful link to info forming the memory
e.g. cue STM may lead you to recall lots of info about STM
what are other cues that can be encoded at time of learning that are NOT meaningful?
- context dependent forgetting
- state dependent forgetting
what is context dependent forgetting?
- occurs when recall depends on an external cue e.g environment/surroundings (weather or place etc)
what was the research into context dependent forgetting?
Godden and Baddley 1975
- studied deep sea divers
AIM= investigate whether memory was better for words learned and recalled in same environment or in different environment
—> contexts were land or water
—> 18 ppts (13 males, 5 males) from university diving club —> ppts asked to learn set of words either on land or under water and then asked to recall words in either these settings.
4 conditions:
- learning on land, recalling on land
- learning on land, recalling underwater
- learning underwater, recalling underwater
- learning underwater, recalling on land
—> results = words learned underwater = recalled better underwater and same with land. Accurate recall 40% lower in non-matching conditions —> concluded external cues and context is key for retrieval to happen.
what is state depending forgetting?
- when recall depends on an internal cue e.g feelings/emotions involved or the physiological state of the person e.g. feeling tired/drunk etc
first research on state dependent forgetting.
Cater and Cassidy 1998
- used antihistamine drugs which have a sedative effect.
They found that recall of lists of words was higher when the same state (i.e learning lists of words on antihistamine and recalling on antihistamine)
second research in state dependent forgetting
goodwin et al 1969
- investigated recall when ppts were under the influence of alcohol or when they were sober
- male ppts learnt set of words either drunk or sober and were asked to recall them 24 hours later when either drunk or sober again
- info learnt when under influence of alcohol was recalled better when ppt was under the influence or alcohol (i.e. in the same state)
eval retrieval failure- 1
real world application
- e.g. studying exams should be conducted in same room in which exams is to take place to aid recall —> theory has good external validity
eval retrieval failure- 2
Badddley and Gooden experiment didn’t control contextual cues as divers took part at different times of day and locations = confounding variable and findings and conclusions may be inaccurate
BUT Baddley argued contexts have to be very different before effect is seen
ALSO there experience may have had order effects or demand characteristics, should have used independent measures (not repeated)
ALSO on artificial not everyday task = lack of real world application and ecological validity
eval retrieval failure- 3
Goodwin et al= research support for Carter and Cassidy
