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LCB2 > Exotics > Flashcards

Exotics Flashcards

1
Q

List the blood sampling sites for lizards

A
  • Ventral coccygeal vein
  • Jugular vein
  • Ventral abdominal vein
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2
Q

Describe the method for sampling blood from the ventral coccygeal vein of a lizard

A
  • Entry 1/3rd down the tail to avoid hemipenes and anal glands
  • Can go ventral or lateral
  • Ventral: needle at 30-40° angle to tail, keep going until hit blood or bone, if hit bone pull needle back and try again
  • Lateral: palpate lateral processes and direct needle just underneath and aim towards midline
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3
Q

Describe the method for blood sampling from the jugular vein of lizards

A
  • Blind approach along imaginary line from dorsal ear to shoulder
  • Transillumination can be used to highlight veins in sedated animals
  • Often quite superficial
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4
Q

What are the main advantages of sampling blood from the jugular in lizards?

A
  • Useful in large, longer neck species

- Jugular least likely to get lymph contamination

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5
Q

Discuss the use of the ventral abdominal vein for blood sampling in lizards

A
  • May be visualised in some species
  • Difficult to prevent haematomas
  • Not often used
  • Risk of liver damage
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6
Q

List the sites for blood sampling in snakes

A
  • Ventral coccygeal vein
  • Palatine veins
  • Heart
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7
Q

Discuss the value of the ventral coccygeal vein for sampling blood in snakes

A
  • In most species presented with, is not distinct, may get blood but is not the vein
  • In venomous species coccygeal is well developed, but rarely see these
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8
Q

Outline the disadvantages of using the palatine veins for blood sampling in snakes

A
  • Prone to haematoma formation
  • Large, anaesthetised snakes only
  • May exacerbate anorexia
  • Risk of striking if not anaesthetised
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9
Q

Describe the method for blood sampling from the heart in snakes

A
  • Dorsal recumbency
  • Heart located visually, with doppler or ultrasound
  • Stabilise heart between thumb and finger
  • Needle entry ventral midline at 30° angle in cranial direction aiming for caudal point of ventricle
  • May get some blood, then stops due to contraction of heart in systole, in diastole will get blood again
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10
Q

Describe the advantages of blood sampling from the heart in snakes

A
  • Virtually no damage if done correctly
  • Heart muscle seals over entry wound
  • Can be conscious
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11
Q

List the blood sampling sites in chelonia

A
  • Jugular
  • Subcarapacial
  • Dorsal coccygeal vein
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12
Q

Describe blood sampling from the jugular vein in chelonia

A
  • Along line from dorsal ear scale to shoulder
  • Tends to be superficial and visible in some species
  • Preferred route in chelonia, lowest risk of lymph contamination
  • Easier in weak tortoise
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13
Q

What are the main risks of jugular sampling in chelonia?

A
  • Not enough pressure on neck afterwards for a few mines can lead to very large haematoma
  • Restraint can be difficult and stressful
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14
Q

Describe blood sampling from the sub-carapacial vein in chelonia

A
  • Entry point craniodorsal midline where skin joins carapace
  • Aim for point a junction of 1st and 2nd vertebral scute on midline
  • May need to bend needle slightly
  • Head may be retracted or extended
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15
Q

What are the main advantages of using the sub-carapacial vein for sampling in chelonia?

A

Good for species that may bite or won’t allow access to head

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16
Q

Describe the problems associated with sub-carapacial vein in chelonia for sampling and injection

A
  • If too far cranial may sample lymph
  • When head is retracted, cervical spine bends and risk pithing terrapin as go through spinal cord between the vertebrae
  • Used as induction area, spinal cord can become acutely paralysed. Some recover after weeks, others don’t
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17
Q

Describe blood sampling from the dorsal coccygeal vein in chelonia

A
  • Often superficial
  • Aim as far cranial as possible
  • Often lymph contaminated
  • Better for induction rather than diagnostics
  • Angle needle on midline, advance to either bone or blood
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18
Q

List the sites for blood sampling in the rabbit

A
  • Marginal ear vein (first option)
  • Jugular vein (second option)
  • Central ear artery
  • Cephalic and saphenous
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19
Q

Describe the method for sampling from the marginal ear vein

A
  • Small (25G) needle and 1ml syringe

- Wrap in towel

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20
Q

What are the main risks associated with blood sampling from the ear in rabbits?

A
  • Pinnal necrosis with poor/rough technique

- Irritating drugs, catheters and bandages can also cause pinnal necrosis

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21
Q

Compare blood sampling from the marginal ear vein and from the central ear artery in the rabbit

A
  • Similar techniques

- In artery, blood pressure fills syringe, no negative pressure needed

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22
Q

Outline the disadvantages of using the jugular vein for blood sampling in the rabbit

A
  • Dewlap can get in the way (esp. females)
  • Poor/rough technique can cause blindness in ipsilateral eye
  • Restraint may inhibit respiration
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23
Q

Outline the disadvantages of using the cephalic or saphenous for blood sampling in the rabbit

A

Can be easier for rabbit to kick out which disrupts sampling and can cause injury, proper restraint required

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24
Q

Describe blood sampling from the cephalic vein in guinea pigs

A
  • More lateral vs rabbit
  • Thick skin
  • For catheter, first insert hypodermic needle then pass catheter through this
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25
Q

What is the most useful sampling site for large volumes of blood in small exotic mammals? (G-pig, rat, mouse, gerbil, hamser)

A
  • Cranial vena cava

- In all but guinea pig, saphenous good too

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26
Q

List the blood sampling sites for rats, mice, gerbils and hamsters

A
  • Lateral tail vein
  • ventral tail artery
  • Lateral saphenous vein or cranial vena cava
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27
Q

Compare the position of the jugular vein in cats and ferrets

A

Jugular more lateral in ferret than cat

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28
Q

Which site is best for blood sampling of uncommon exotic mammals?

A

Femoral vein, cranial vena cava also good

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29
Q

Outline the method for sampling blood from the femoral vein in uncommon exotic mammals

A
  • Most require sedation or GA
  • Place in lateral recumbency with leg to be sampled on table
  • Apply pressure in proximal inguinal canal with index finger of free hand, palpate femoral pulse
  • Direct needle slightly caudal to it in line with femur
  • Keep slight negative pressure on syringe until flash of blood in hub
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30
Q

What are the most concerning complications that can occur as a result of blood sampling from the cranial vena cava?

A
  • Pericardial effusion
  • Cardiac tampenade
  • Death
  • In some species, e.g. guinea pig, heart lies very close to sample site
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31
Q

Describe the method for blood sampling from the cranial vena cava

A
  • Thoracic radiograph first to assess any potential effects of pathology on anatomy
  • Anaesthetised
  • Dorsal recumbency, head extended, forelimbs retracted caudally
  • 26G, 12mm needle or smaller
  • Advanced from notch where first rib meets manubrium towards contralateral hindlimb
  • Approximate 30° angle until blood flash
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32
Q

Explain the effect of anaesthesia on the blood sample of a ferret, and how this can be avoided

A

Will lower PCV - sample asap after sedation/induction to minimise splenic sequestration effect

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33
Q

What does a blue/purple tinge to the background of a reptile blood smear suggest?

A

Lymph is present - need to sample again

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34
Q

What is a species specific blood sampling problem with some species of reptiles, especially Geckos, regarding blood sampling from the tail and how can this be avoided?

A

Tail autotomy (dropping tail) in response to sampling. Avoid with GA or avoid using tail

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35
Q

Explain the safe volume of blood that may be taken from a reptile

A
  • Circulating blood vol approx 5-8% of body weight
  • May collect up to 10% of this i.e. 5-8ml/kg
  • Generally use 1ml/kg
  • Generally don’t need more than 2ml
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36
Q

What amount of blood can be taken from an ill reptile?

A

Half the normal amount i.e. 0.5ml/kg

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37
Q

Explain the safe volume of blood that may be taken from a rabbit

A
  • Circulatory vol ~55-70ml/kg
  • Can collect up to 10% i.e. 5.5-7ml/kg
  • Rarely need more than 2ml
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38
Q

Explain the safe volume that can be taken from guinea pigs, rats, mice, gerbils, hamsters and ferrets

A
  • G pig: blood vol 70-75ml/kg, 0.1-0.2ml can be taken
  • Rat, mouse, gerbil, hamster: blood vol 60-70mg/kg, collect 10%
  • Ferret: blood vol 50-70ml/kg, collect 10%
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39
Q

Outline the typical haematology and biochemistry preparation for reptiles

A
  • EDTA tends to hamolyse reptile blood cells, Li-heparin anicoag of choice
  • Make 2 good smears
  • Haematology usually manual
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40
Q

Why is thorough skin preparation prior to blood sampling required for reptiles?

A

Ski heavily contaminated: pseudomonas, salmonella, klebsiella, e coli, fungi common

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41
Q

Why is reptile haematology typically carried out manually?

A

Automated techniques confused by nucleated red blood cells

42
Q

Outline the typical haematology and biochemistry preparations for rabbits

A
  • Clots quickly
  • EDTA for haematology
  • Li-heparin for routine biochem
  • Fluoride oxalate for glusose
  • 2 fresh blood smears
43
Q

Describe the normal rabbit erythrocytes

A

Anisocytosis and polychromasia common, normal due to shorter RBC life span

44
Q

Describe the appearance of rabbit neutrophils/heterophils

A
  • Granular cytoplasm, easily mistaken for eosinophils
45
Q

Describe the typical white blood cells of rabbits

A
  • Neutrophils more granular
  • Basophils present commonly
  • Lymphocytes, eosinophils, monocytes similar to dog/cat
  • Neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio 1:1, (45%:45%) of blood, rest is basophils, monocytes etc.
46
Q

Describe the effect of stress or disease on total white cell count in the rabbit

A
  • Rarely increases

- Instead, neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio changes

47
Q

What is indicated by a relative neutrophilia and lymphopaenia in a rabbit?

A

Infection or chronic stress

48
Q

What is indicated by a relative lymphocytosis in a rabbit?

A

Acute stress (caused by adrenaline)

49
Q

What are Kurloff cells?

A

Cells in guinea pigs produced by thymus under oestrogen stimulation, resembles lymphocyte with round to oval inclusions

50
Q

What is the most abundant cell type in guinea pig haematology?

A

Neutrophil

51
Q

Describe the appearance of ferret neutrophils

A

Contains small, pale red granules

52
Q

Describe the appearance of ferret eosinophils

A

Granules rounded and bright red

53
Q

Describe the normal haematology of ferrets

A
  • Higher HCT, Hb and RBC counts
  • White cell count generally low (3-4x10^9)
  • Ferrets appear to have no blood groups
54
Q

Describe the erythrocytes and thrombocytes of reptiles

A
  • Both nucleated
  • Similar function to mammals
  • Erythrocyte life span up to 800d in some species
  • Polychromasia and reticulocytosis very low (<1%) generally monomorphic population of erythrocytes
  • May take 4 months for losses to be replenished
  • Erythrocytes greyer cytoplasm, pinker nucleus
55
Q

Describe the haematocrit in reptiles

A

PCV 20-40%, lower in reptiles vs mammals, atheltic species e.g. monitors may have higher

56
Q

What is the effect of serial sampling in reptiles?

A

Haematocrit will decrease due to long time to replenish erythrocytes

57
Q

Describe the heterophils of reptiles

A
  • Equivalent to mammalian neutrophils
  • Predominant cell type
  • Have fusiform intracytoplasmic granules
  • May get toxic change of granules/nuclei in response to severe inflammation
  • Some species variation in morphology of the granules
58
Q

Describe the seasonal of reptilian heterophilss

A
  • Increase in summer

- Decrease during hibernation

59
Q

What is indicated by heterophilia in reptiles?

A

Infection, inflammation, stress

60
Q

What is indicated by heeropaenia in reptiles?

A

Chronic stress/disease, severe infection

61
Q

What is the significance of finding heeropaenia in a tortoise in summer?

A
  • Should be at peak levels of heterophils
  • Has been suffering so long that has missed this
  • Low level compromise for long periods
62
Q

What does toxic change of reptilian heterophils indicate?

A

Being produced too quickly or damaged by infection - starting to struggle with infection

63
Q

What is indicated by finding heterophilia with toxic change in a reptile?

A

Bad infection, but is fighting it

64
Q

Describe the appearance of reptilian lymphocytes

A

Morphology very similar to mammals

65
Q

Describe the seasonality of reptilian lymphocytes

A

Generally lowest in winter

66
Q

What does lymphopaenia in reptiles indicate?

A

Malnutrition, stress, immunosuppression and poor husbandry

67
Q

What does lymphocytosis in reptiles indicate?

A

Inflammation, parasitic and viral disease, wound healing, ecdysis

68
Q

Describe the appearance of eosinophils and basophils of reptiles

A

Similar morphology to mammalian

69
Q

Describe the seasonality of reptilian eosinophils and basophils

A
  • Eosino: lower in summer

- Baso: minimal seaosnal change

70
Q

What is indicated by eosinophilia in reptiles?

A

Parasites and inflammation

71
Q

What is indicated by basophilia in reptiles?

A

Parasitic and viral disease

72
Q

Describe azurophils in reptiles

A
  • Unique to reptiles
  • Similar to monocytes
  • red-purple cytoplasm
  • More common in snakes
  • Commonly mistaken for activated lymphocyte
73
Q

Describe the monocytes of reptiles

A

Similar to those of mammals, biggest cells on smear

74
Q

What is indicated by monocytosis and azurophilia in reptiles?

A
  • Inflammation and granulomatous disease, rare in healthy
  • E.g. osteomyelitis, TB often leads to raised monocytes
  • Tend to respond to the same type of disease
75
Q

Briefly outline the developement of T cells in birds

A

T lymphocyte precursors produced by stem cells in the embryonic yolk sac and bone marrow, then develop into T lymphocytes in the thymus

76
Q

Describe the Bursa of Fabriciu

A
  • Unique to birds
  • Dorsal diverticulum in the proctodeum
  • Consists of fold of lymphoid tissue
  • Maturation of B cells
77
Q

Describe the spleen of birds

A
  • Right side of coelom between proventriculus and ventriculus
  • Shape varies: triangular in ducks, geese, elongated in budge, oval in pigoens and chickens, round in parrots,
  • Not a blood reservoir therefore small
  • Phagocytoses aged erytrhocytes
  • Aids in lymphopoeisis and production of antibody
  • Purely immunological
78
Q

Outline the restraint of birds for blood sampling

A
  • Sedation/GA with iso less risk than physical in sick or fractious birds
  • GA may reduce haematoma formation
  • Towels, not gauntlets
  • Prolonged restraint can lead to stress and hyperthermia
79
Q

List the blood sampling sites for birds

A
  • Jugular vein
  • Cutaneous ulnar/basilic vein
  • Medial metatarsal vein
  • Toe nail clip
  • Venous occipital sinus
  • Bone marrow aspirate
80
Q

Describe blood sampling from the jugular vein in birds

A
  • Large, accessible
  • Right jugular larger
  • Easily visualised in most species without plucking feathers (apteria)
  • Palpation and blind technique in some
  • can be difficult to prevent/stop haematoma
  • Single handed restrain in small birds
  • Advance needle cranial-caudal or caudal-cranial using 1st finger or thumb respectively as support for syringe
81
Q

Why is care required in pigeons for blood sampling from the jugular vein?

A

Have capillary bed network around neck, needle may cause significant haematoma

82
Q

Describe blood sampling from the cutaneous ulnar/basilic vein in birds

A
  • Good for small samples/larger birds
  • Potential to fracture wing in conscious birds esp. aged females
  • Haemtomas common and can be severe
  • Place in dorsal recumbency with wing extended, stabilise with thumb and forefinger
  • Basilic crosses extensor tendon
83
Q

In which species is blood sampling from the medial metatarsal vein particularly useful?

A

Chickens and waterfowl

84
Q

Describe blood sampling from the medial metatarsal vein in chickens

A
  • Laid in lateral recumbency without sedation
  • Vein accessible
  • Base of first digit, groove between tendons
  • Vein either proud of groove or may sink into groove if dehydrated
85
Q

Describe the method for blood sampling from the medial metatarsal vein in birds

A
  • Sternal recumbencywith limbs extended caudally, or restrained in towel with feet and ventrum facing sampler
  • Limb held by assistant
  • Light pressure bandage easily placed to prevent haematoma
86
Q

Describe the use of a toe nail clip in birds for blood sample

A
  • Painful
  • Artefacts common in cell morphology and may alter some biochemistries
  • Not recommended and does not give diagnostic sample
87
Q

Discuss the use of the venous occipital sinus for blood sampling in birds

A
  • Described in waterfowl
  • Rarely used in practice
  • Usually used in the field
  • Risk of pithing the bird
  • May be useful in some circumstances e.g. euthanasia
88
Q

When are bone marrow aspirates generally used for blood sampling in birds?

A

Investigation of anaemia or sample for Psittacine Beak and Feather disease PCR

89
Q

Describe the method for bone marrow aspirates in bids

A
  • Proximal tibiotarsus
  • GA and post-sampling analgesia required
  • 2.5ml syringe and 23G needle for average sized parrot
  • Entry medial aspect tibial plateau avoiding patellar ligament
  • Hypodermic needle ok, may need to use needle first to make hole then aspirate bone marrow through a second needle
90
Q

Outline some risk factors assocaited with blood sampling in birds

A
  • Veins fragile and prone to haematomas
  • Haematomas can be life threatening
  • Haematomas generally due to poor handling but can get clotting defects due to liver disease, diet (e.g. seed diet)
  • Post-sampling haemorrhage and haeomtoma formation
  • Tight restraint can kill
91
Q

Explain the volume of blood that can be taken from birds

A

Circulating vol @6-12% of bodyweight in healthy animal

  • May collect up to 10% of this i.e. 6-12ml/kg
  • If in poor health take much less
  • In small bird need to prioritise tests as have little blood available
92
Q

Describe the preparation of avian biochem and haematology

A
  • EDTA tends to haemolyse RBCs in some species
  • Li-heparin for haematology and biochem in small patients
  • 2 good smears
  • Haematology usually manual due to nucleated red blood cells
93
Q

Describe the erythrocytes of birds

A
  • Nucleated
  • Short life span 25-45 days
  • Cell size varies with species: larger in ratites, smaller in passerine
  • Mild polychromasia and anisocytosis normal
  • Smaller cells better for flight
94
Q

Describe the PCV in birds

A

35-55%, higher than reptiles and some mammals

95
Q

Outline the recovery feom anaemia in birds

A

Rapid (3-4 days), RBCs have short life span, rapid cell regeneration with appropriate treatment

96
Q

Describe thrombocytes of birds

A
  • analogous to mammalian platelets
  • Originate from stem cell not megakaryocytes
  • Nucleated
  • Phagocytic functions
  • Clotting function weaker vs mammals (less thromboplastin)
97
Q

What do raised thrombocytes in birds indicate?

A

Infection (have some phagocytic function)

98
Q

Describe the heterophils of birds

A
  • Similar function to mammalian neutrophil
  • Most abundant cell in most species
  • Round with lobed basophilic nucelus and prominent eosinophilic needle-shaped, oval or round cytoplasmic granules
  • Cytoplasm colourless
  • Phagocytosis, bacteriocidal, role in acute inflammation
99
Q

What do the following indicate in a bird?

a: heterophilia
b: heteropaenia

A

a: heterophilia = stress, infection
b: heteropaenia = acute or severe inflammation, sepsis, viruses

100
Q

Describe the eosinophils of birds

A
  • Normally present in low numbers
  • Function uncertain, may be involved in parasitic infection similar to mammals
  • Round cells, lobed basophilic nucleus
  • Cytoplasm stains clear
  • Granules brightly eosinophilic tend to be round
  • With rapid stains can be hard to differentiated from neutrophils

LCB2 (14 decks)

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