Existentialism Flashcards
What is an ‘essence’?
A core set of properties that are necessary for a thing to be what it is
What did Sartre argue about human essence?
He argued that people create their own essence
Define teleology
The idea that God created the world with one aim in mind
What is humanity’s relationship with freedom?
We are terrified by the amount of it that we have
What is is called when we live according to the values others have imposed upon us?
Living in bad faith
What is it called when we make a choice that is not influenced by any external factors?
Making authentic decisions
What did Nietzsche argue?
We should be nihilistic by default and reject all moral and religious principles, accepting the fact that life is meaningless
What does Albert Camus argue?
When wee accept cultural norms and traditions, we are committing philosophical suicide. We need to search for a personal essence
Who were the founding scholars behind phenomenology?
Husserl and Heidegger
What is phenomenology?
The study of the world as it appears to our consciousness. The only thing that we can be sure of is our personal experience of the world
Why can we never know anything (apart from what)?
We can only know our conscious
We can only see things through our own veil of perception and not generalise that others experience things in the same way
Due to phenomenology, what must be the logical starting point for existentialism?
The conscience
How did Warnock criticise Sartre’s use of phenomenology?
Argued that it does not say anything conclusive about experience, it is only descriptive
What are the 4 foundations of Existentialism?
1) Subjectivity and the Cogito
2) Existence precedes essence
3) Atheism
4) Nothingness
What part of Descartes’ epistemology did Sartre agree with and how did he use it?
Sartre agreed with the cogito
He used it in an attempt to attain recognition of his own consciousness as opposed to find objective truths.
What does subjectivity mean?
Taking the experiences of the individual as the starting point for philosophical inquiry
What are the 2 things that we can be conscious of?
1) Beings in themselves
2) Beings for themselves
Being in itself
They cannot be anything apart from what they are - their essence precedes their existence.
EG a table
Being for itself
They have a certain degree of control and can make moral decisions - their existence precedes their essence
EG humans
What is another word Sartre used for ‘consciousness’?
Nothingness
What does subjectivity reject?
The possibility of objective knowledge. This is where it departs from mainstream philosophy
Criticisms of Existence preceding Essence
- If we have no essence, what does it mean for our existence to precede it?
- Do humans really have no essence (genes)
- Do other beings have an essence? (other beings like plants are alive, but confined by their structure so they have an essence)
- Could freedom itself be our essence?
- If other beings have an essence w/o God, why can’t humans?
How does Sartre relate God to his theory of existence preceding essence? How can this be criticised?
There is no divine creator, so there can’t be a predesigned essence for us to follow.
BUT this is a huge assumption to make
What did Dostoyevsky say about atheism and freedom?
‘If God does not exist, everything would be permitted’
What does Sartre argue about absolute values and God?
Since God does not exist, everyone can do what he likes
No a priori values exist
What is the criticism of Sartre’s atheism?
- Where is the proof of God’s non-existence?
- Kierkegaard, a Christian existentialist, proved existentialism and God were not mutually exclusive
Why can man not be defined?
He is nothing to begin with
What ‘powers’ come from nothingness? (3)
1) Rejecting the past
2) Absent friend
3) Feeling of vertigo
Rejecting the past
We can use our consciousness to reject our past like a smoker rejecting their past habits and becoming clean
Absent friend
We can distance ourselves from others and be conscience of certain absences like when our friend is not there
Feeling of vertigo
we can negate certain futures like a fear of falling
Why do we need imagination?
So that we can know all the other possible futures contingent on our choices and choose the one that we want
What is existential humanism?
The constant struggle for self-knowledge and self-responsibility
Criticism of Sartre’s concept of nothingness
He seems to be making something out of the concept off nothingness
What are the 2 metaphysical implications of existentialism
1) Freedom
2) Facticity
Metaphysical Freedom
The freedom to make independent choices and actions
Political Freedom
Freedom in a political sense e.g. voting rights, human rights
How does Beauvoir emulate Sartre’s freedom?
Argues that femininity is learned by women and not innate. This is much like existence preceding our essence
What kinds of determinism can be cited to criticise Sartre’s free will?
1) Physical determinism
2) Biological determinism
3) Psychological determinism
4) Theological determinism
How does Communism criticise Sartre’s idea of individuality?
We cannot help by be caught up in collective movements
How does phenomenalism defend free will?
We can be certain only of what we appears to our conscience. Since freedom appears to our conscience, we can be certain of having it
Why do we often reject freedom?
1) Laws of nature
2) Responsibility brings fear
3) Freedom is exhausting
4) Freedom is terrifying
What is the idea that responsibility of freedom bringing fear called?
Anguish
What happens if we break through anguish and embrace our freedom?
Our lives become a consistent project in which we constantly create ourselves
What is ‘facticity?
Things that happen to be true that we did not choose
How is our freedom limited by our situation?
1) Historical situations like being born into slavery
2) Necessities of living in this world like having to labour
We do not have a human nature, so what do we have?
A universal human condition/experience
CRITICISM: Sartre’s paradox of freedom
- Facticity and the fact that we are beings-for-ourselves suggests both that we are free and not free to reject our freedom
Why are humans predictable if they do not have an essence?
They share the universal human experience
Can one’s freedom be limited rather than absolute?
Intoxication, fear and illness may limit our responsibility. This is even recognised in the law
Is Sartre’s idea of freedom and facticity elitist?
Certain circumstances limit our freedom. EG woman in Yemen v. woman in France
Where does the feeling of anguish come from?
The fear of the full extent of our freedom and the fact that this makes us 100% culpable for our actions
Where does the feeling of abandonment come from?
The realisation that there is no God, no purpose and nothing that can support us in this cruel world
Dilemma of the Soldier
Shows the true extent of our freedom
A student doesn’t know whether to fight in the war or to care for his elderly mother. Sartre said there was not correct course of action, he is completely free to do either
What is the cause of despair?
The realisation that there are things that we cannot control
What are the responses to despair?
1) We could accept there are some things that we cannot control and move on (positive reaction)
2) We could dwell on it, descending into quietism
What does quietism lead to?
A pathetic and unfulfilling life
What do cowards do?
Allow themselves to play the role other have cast for them in life and in doping so live in bad faith. They withdraw themselves from reality as if they were an object
What are scum?
Those who think that their existence is necessary and therefore act with an air of superiority when in reality their lives have no meaning
What was Sartre’s classification of ‘scum’ an implicit criticism of?
Nazism
Where does Sartre disagree with the law in his examples of living in bad faith?
He argues that emotions cannot be the cause of our actions. The law gives some leniency and recognises this (e.g. with crimes of passion)
What does Sartre think about divine ‘signs’
If we are putting our faith in something transcendent, this is just avoiding having to make the choice yourselves
Under what conditions is following advice tolerable?
So long as we retain full responsibility for the consequential action
Criticisms of bad faith
- On what moral high ground does Sartre condemn those in bad faith?
- If there are no absolutes, how can Sartre say that we cannot live in bad faith?
- Can we really deceive ourselves?
How does Sartre respond to the criticism that he cannot say ‘don’t live in bad faith’ since there are no moral absolutes?
He says that it is a logical statement and not a moral statement. In falling into bad faith (which he redefines as ‘mistaken faith’) we are making a logical error
What is the idea that we can only give meaning to our lives via action called?
Commitment
What are the ethical implications of Existentialism? (4)
1) We are condemned to be free
2) Bad faith
3) Authenticity
4) How to treat others
What do we do when we first meet people?
We treat them as objects, creating a tension between our consciousnesses as we feel them treating us as objects
What are relationships built on?
The tension between the consciouses
What is intersubjectivity?
- Middle ground between objectivity and subjectivity
- It is the respect for the freedom of others
Criticisms of Sartre’s view of relationships
- Very pessimistic
- Sartre had a positive relationship with Someone de Beauvoir
What are the 2 bases of morality for Existentialism?
1) Freedom
2) Intersubjectivity
What does Sartre mean by Universalisability?
In acting in a certain way, then we must take responsible for everyone who wants to act in a similar manner
BUT these are not objectively prescriptive as with Kant
What is a humanism?
Something that dignifies the human condition
How is existentialism maintained even in the face of God giving us commands?
We still have to interpret the commandments individually
Criticism of Sartre’s atheism and how it relates to absolute moral values
If there is no God then there can be no absolute moral values and therefore everything is permissible
Criticism with regards to moral judgements
How can we make moral judgements without any objective values?
What are the reasons (assertions) that Sartre gives to support the notion that we should value our freedom and others’ freedom (3)
1) Intersubjectivity
2) Authenticity
3) Universalising freedom
What happens when the freedoms of two people collide?
There must be a compromisation of our freedom; we have to respect the freedom of others
What is the theory of Reciprocal Freedom and who devised it?
David Looper
We must band together to fight for our freedom. Only if others are free can we too be free
What is generosity?
When everyone wills the freedom of others
How did Warnock back up the idea of Universalising freedom?
Argued for ‘freedom as a foundation for all values’
When we choose an action, what are we universalising?
1) the action
2) the freedom to take that course of action
Criticism of universalising freedom
We do not always want what others want or value what others value. Can we really apply our experience of freedom and our value of it to everyone else?
What are the 4 criticisms of Existentialism that Sartre outlines?
1) Existentialism is pessimistic
2) Existentialism emphasises the uglier side of life
3) Existentialism isolates the individual
4) Existentialism is amoral
Why is Existentialism seen as pessimistic?
- Fails to give concrete guidance
- There is no God and thus no motivation to be moral
- We don’t have time for the philosophising that an answer to these questions would require
How does Sartre respond to the criticism that Existentialism I pessimistic?
Says that it promotes action, not inaction, as we are encouraged to realise our own freedom. Thus, it dignifies humans
Why is Existentialism seen as emphasising the uglier side of life?
- Sartre’s negative view of relationships
- The issues faced are more depressing things like abortion
How does Sartre respond to the criticism that Existentialism emphasises the uglier side of life?
- Says it is not uglier than the themes of any other naturalistic novel
- Anyone who argues that it is pessimistic is caught up in the old sayings that encourage things like selfishness
Who says that Existentialism isolates the individual?
Communists
Why is Existentialism seen as isolating the individual?
- It is a bourgeois philosophy as it comes from the middle class who don’t have to do any work and live sheltered lives
- Existentialism only furthers pre-existing manipulative power structures as it will keep the middle class comfortably superior
What is Sartre’s response to the criticism that Existentialism isolates the individual?
- Any philosophy has to start from a point of certainty. for Existentialism, this is the individual. Once this is realised, the dependence on the freedom of others is also realised
- We all share one universal human experience
Why do people argue that Existentialism is an amoral theory?
- Lack of a strict moral code gives scope for immorality
- We cannot judge against a non-existent moral code
What is Sartre’s response to the criticism that Existentialism is amoral?
- We cannot act amorally as we need t respect the freedom of others
- We can judge people against fact. If they are amoral, they are acting in an objectively false manner
Why does atheism allow Existentialism to be a humanism?
There is no divine legislator too humans are free to create their own values and in doing so humanity dignified
