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Physiology > Exam Two: Learning Objectives > Flashcards

Exam Two: Learning Objectives Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three major functions animals use energy for?

A

biosynthesis
maintenance
generation of external work

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2
Q

Metabolic rate is often estimated by __ consumption (__) but can be measured directly by production of __ (__)

A

oxygen; respirometry
heat; calorimetry

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3
Q

Which energy measurement is direct? Which is indirect?

A

respirometry - indirect
calorimetry - direct

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4
Q

Discuss water movement through an isolated system.

A

initially water is moving in one direction
eventually directional motion becomes random
heat is produced, water slows down
external energy is needed to keep water flowing

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5
Q

What is the difference between closed and open respirometry?

A

open - measures how much oxygen is consumed movement by movement
closed - measure how much oxygen is consumed over a given duration

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6
Q

What provides the most direct and accurate measurement of metabolic rate of an organism?

A

heat production (calorimetry)

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7
Q

Respiratory Quotient (RQ) =

A

moles of CO2 produced per unit time/ moles of O2 consumed per unit time

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8
Q

What is the respiratory exchange ratio for carbohydrates?

A

1.0

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9
Q

What is the respiratory exchange ratio for lipids?

A

0.71

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10
Q

What is the respiratory exchange ratio for proteins?

A

0.83

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11
Q

What is the respiratory exchange ratio (R) of the following equation:
1 mol C6H12O6 + 6 mol O2 -> 6 mol CO2 + 6 mol H2O + 2820 kJ/mol

A

moles CO2 prod/ mol O2 consumed
6/6
=1

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12
Q

SDA (specific dynamic action) is __ for protein rich meals compared to lipids or carbs

A

higher

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13
Q

Define basal metabolic rate (BMR)

A

used for homeothermic animals, and is measured at their thermoneutral zone, or the temperature range in which it is minimal

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14
Q

Define standard metabolic rate (SMR)

A

used for poikilothermic animals and is specific to the temperature at which it is measured

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15
Q

There are many ___ for a given individuals (SMR/BMR)

A

SMR

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16
Q

__ and __ cause an increase in metabolic rate

A

exercise and feeding

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17
Q

The relationship between metabolic rate and body size is __

A

negatively allometric

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18
Q

Discuss the energy needs of a species compared to body size

A

metabolic rate is less than proportional to body size of a species

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19
Q

Mass specific metabolic rate curves have a __ slope

A

negative

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20
Q

A 5g mouse consumes __ oxygen per unit time as a 10 g mouse

A

more than half

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21
Q

Many other traits such as __ __ scale with mass

A

heart rate

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22
Q

Physiological processes require energy in the form of ___?

A

ATP

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23
Q

What are the three ways ATP is generated?

A

phosphogens, anaerobic glycolysis, and aerobic glycolysis

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24
Q

Discuss the production of ATP via phosphogens

A

ADP can be phosphorylated directly by reversible stores of phosphate called phosphogens

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25
Q

What is an example of reversible stores for phosphogens?

A

creatine phosphate

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26
Q

Describe the process of anaerobic glycolysis

A

when oxygen is unavailable, a small amount of ATP can be generated by substrate level phosphorylation within glycolysis

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27
Q

Describe the process of aerobic glycolysis

A

oxidative phosphorylation by the electron transport chain can continually generate ATP in the presence of oxygen delivered by breathing or internal stores

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28
Q

Which mechanisms of ATP production are steady state?

A

aerobic catabolism using O2 from the envrionment

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29
Q

What mechanisms of ATP production are nonsteady states?

A

anaerobic glycolysis, phosphagen use, and aerobic catabolism using O2 preexisting in the body

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30
Q

Define VO2max

A

aka aerobic capacity
maximal rate at which an animal can consume oxygen

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31
Q

The VO2max determines the maximal rate of sustained __ ___ and thus maximum __ ___

A

ATP production
exercise intensity

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32
Q

T/F: Individuals and species do not differ in their VO2max

A

false

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33
Q

Which mechanism of ATP is best for a sprint?

A

phosphagens

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34
Q

Which mechanism of ATP is best for a marathon?

A

aerobic/ anaerobic glycolysis aka cellular respiration

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35
Q

Relate a chemical equation to the production of phosphagens

A

creatine phosphate + ADP <- (creatine phosphase) -> creatine + ATP

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36
Q

Vertebrae muscle contains molecules that temporarily store __ __ __ donated from ATP

A

high energy phosphates

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37
Q

Discuss the energy stored at the rate at which ATP is generated for phosphagens

A

energy stored in phosphogen fuels can only sustain exercise for a few seconds, but it can generate ATP at very high rates (i.e. high power)

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38
Q

What do vertebrates use for phosphagen? Invertebrates?

A

verts - creatine phosphate
inverts - arginine phosphate

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39
Q

What are the four steps of aerobic metabolism?

A

glycolysis
intermediate step
the Krebs cycle
oxidative phosphorylation

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40
Q

What is generated during glycolysis?

A

2 net ATPs, 2 NADHs and 2 pyruvates

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41
Q

What is generated during the intermediate step?

A

2 NADHs

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42
Q

What is generated during the Krebs cycle?

A

Generates 2 GTPs -> 2 ATPs, 6 NADHs, and 2 FADHs

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43
Q

What is generated during oxidative phosphorylation

A

generates roughly 34 ATPs in theory

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44
Q

Anaerobic glycolysis; When O2 is unavailable, building NADH is __ __, as the __ __ __ is disabled

A

not useful
electron transport chain

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45
Q

Glycolysis can be used to generate __ amounts of __ without the use of __

A

small; ATP; mitochondria

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46
Q

Anaerobic glycolysis; because the ETC is not consuming ___, ___ becomes scares, compromising the ability to run ___

A

NADH
NAD+
glycolysis

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47
Q

Anaerobic glycolysis regenerates __ using ___ __ __

A

NAD+
lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)

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48
Q

Anaerobic glycolysis: using __, pyruvate is converted to __ in order to maintain redox balance

A

LDH
lactate

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49
Q

What requires metabolic processing?

A

lactate, unlike CO2 and H2O

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50
Q

Lactate is converted back to __ only after __ __ to tissues is resumed

A

pyruvate; O2 delivery

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51
Q

__ is required for the metabolism of __

A

O2; lactate

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52
Q

Describe the percentage of ATP made by glucose from glycogen stored in muscles over exercise

A

Roughly 50% at beginning, 25% after two hours, 0% around 3.5 hours

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53
Q

Describe the percentage of ATP made by glucose brought to muscles by blood over exercise.

A

starts at 10% then increases over time

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54
Q

Describe the percentage of ATP made by fatty acids brought to muscles by blood over exercise.

A

Starts at 40% and slowly increases over time

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55
Q

Where does energy come from during a 100 m sprint?

A

ATP from anaerobic glycolysis > ATP from phosphagen > ATP from aerobic catabolism using glycogen and glucose

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56
Q

Where does energy come from during a 1500 m run?

A

ATP from aerobic catabolism using glycogen and glucose > really small amount of ATP from anaerobic glycolysis

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57
Q

Where does energy come from during a marathon?

A

ATP from aerobic catabolism using glycogen and glucose >ATP from aerobic catabolism using lipids

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58
Q

What is the function of myoglobin?

A

vertebrate skeletal muscle also contains a type of hemoglobin that stores O2 internally by directly recruiting O2 molecules from blood hemoglobin

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59
Q

What enables many vertebrates to have the ability to run aerobic glycolysis for a few seconds without O2 delivery to tissues?

A

myoglobin

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60
Q

What are the two kinds of muscle fibers?

A

Fast glycolytic fibers (FG) and slow oxidative fibers (SO)

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61
Q

Fast glycolytic fibers contract __, can generate lots of __, primarily fueled by __ __ and thus have high levels of __ __ (LDH) and __ mitochondrial volume

A

quickly; power; anaerobic glycolysis; glycolytic enzymes; low

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62
Q

Slow oxidative fibers contract relatively __ are primarily fueled by __ __ so they have high levels of __ __ and lots of __ and __

A

slowly; oxidative metabolism; aerobic enzymes; mitochondria; myoglobin

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63
Q

High levels of __ and __ make SO fibers more resistant to fatigue

A

myoglobin; mitochondria

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64
Q

FG is shown as __ in the picture and SO is shown as __

A

light; dark

65
Q

Describe aerobic and anaerobic cooperation of light submaximal exercise

A

Actual O2 much smaller than maximal, minimal oxygen deficit and excess post exercise oxygen consumption, takes short time

66
Q

Describe aerobic and anaerobic cooperation of heavy submaximal exercise

A

actual O2 uptake just below theoretical O2 demand - relative oxygen deficit and excess postexercise oxygen consumption, takes medium amount of time

67
Q

Describe aerobic and anaerobic cooperation of supramaximal exercise

A

actual O2 uptake meets theoretical O2 demand - oxygen deficit and excess post exercise is excessive, takes long time

68
Q

Two species of __ (goldfish and carp) run the __ __ reaction in reverse - converting __ to __ and __

A

fish; alcohol dehydrogenase
lactic acid; ethanol and CO2

69
Q

Goldfish can run __ __ indefinitely, as __ and __ can be eliminated much easier than __

A

anaerobic glycolysis
ethanol; CO2
lactate

70
Q

Define heat

A

a form of energy; amount of energy a substance contains as a result of its random molecular motions

71
Q

Define temperature

A

measure of the intensity of random molecular motions of a substance (heat)

72
Q

T/F: A large object and a small object can have the same temperature, but different amounts of heat energy

A

True - the amount of matter matters

73
Q

Heat (__) flows from areas of __ temperature to areas of __ temperature, regardless of the amount of heat in both areas

A

energy
high
low

74
Q

What are the four kinds of thermoregulatory classifications?

A

endothermy, ectothermy, homeothermy, and poikilothermy

75
Q

Define endothermy

A

body temperature is generated from within (metabolic processes)

76
Q

Define ectothermy

A

body temperature is determined from the environment

77
Q

Define homeothermy

A

body temperature is relatively constant

78
Q

Define poikilothermy

A

body temperature is variable

79
Q

There are more __ on earth than homeotherms

A

ectotherms

80
Q

Some ectotherms exhibit __ regulations

A

behavioral

81
Q

Define stenothermal

A

an animal that can function only over a relatively small range of temperatures

82
Q

Define eurythermal

A

an animal that can function over a relatively broad range of temperatures

83
Q

What are 5 ways animals exchange heat with their environment?

A

radiation (sun, animal, bush, sky)
Conduction
Convection
Cutaneous and respiratory evaporation

84
Q

Describe the heat regulation of an antelope jackrabbit

A

may radiate heat from large ears to save on evaporative loss by panting

85
Q

Metabolic rate increases approximately __ with increasing __ temperature

A

exponentially; body

86
Q

Which thermoregulator demonstrates acclimation in a laboratory setting?

A

ectotherms

87
Q

Species acclimated to colder temperatures have a higher average __ __ at any give body temperature

A

metabolic rate

88
Q

Define compensation

A

kind of acclimation that moderates the acute response to temperature

89
Q

If lizards are kept at the new temperature, they would show __, over the long term, to the value __ to being moved to a new environment

A

compensation, prior

90
Q

Why does acclimation take so long?

A

physiological changes occur in relative amounts at the cellular level

91
Q

Enzyme substrate affinity is similar over a constant __

A

temperature

92
Q

Enzyme substrate affinity generally __ with __ temperature

A

decreases; increasing

93
Q

How do ectotherms regulate freezing? (two ways)

A

they can tolerate it or prevent it

94
Q

Describe tolerance of ectotherms to freezing

A

tolerance involves managing ice crystal formation; self-limiting process due to osmosis and colligative properties of water

95
Q

Describe prevention of ectotherms freezing.

A

involves supercooling and antifreeze

96
Q

What are the two types of antifreeze?

A

colligative and non-colligative

97
Q

Define supercooling

A

managing ice-nucleating agents

98
Q

Define colligative antifreeze

A

solutes depress freezing point

99
Q

Define non-colligative antifreeze

A

interact with ice crystals to prevent spreading of their formation

100
Q

Birds and mammals __ their body temperature by mainly __ means but can also use ___ means

A

regulate
physiological; behavioral

101
Q

T/F: Birds and mammals are less independent from environmental temperatures than ectotherms

A

false

102
Q

Birds and mammals: cellular functions occur at a relatively __, __ temperature

A

constant, reliable

103
Q

What is the deep body temperature for placental mammals?

A

37°C

104
Q

An endotherm’s metabolic rate __ in __ and __ environments

A

rises
hot; cold

105
Q

What is the thermoneutral zone?

A

determines rate of dry heat transfer and therefore the metabolic rate, from Tb to Ta

106
Q

What is the linear heat equation? (for metabolic rate)

A

M = C(Tb-Ta)
where c = thermal conductance

107
Q

Insulation and conductance are __ proportional

A

inversely

108
Q

As temperature drops within the TNZ, insulation is?

A

increased

109
Q

What is a way to acclimatize to winter?

A

increase insulation

110
Q

How does peak metabolic rate and thermo neutral zone change during winter when more fur is added?

A

peak metabolic rate remains the same
TNZ is increased

111
Q

__ ___ ___ (BAT) is __; __ short circutis the __/__ synthase

A

brown adipose tissue
thermogenic
UCP1; ETC/ATP

112
Q

BAT is found in which kind of animals?

A

cold acclimated animals, hibernators, and newborns

113
Q

Increasing peak metabolic rate, often with more ___, is a response to __, where __ remains the same

A

BAT, cold, insulation

114
Q

Countercurrent heat exchange: outgoing, __ blood gives heat to __ venous blood by virtue of the __ of vessels

A

arterial, incoming, proximity

115
Q

How is hibernation an adaptation to regulating body temperature?

A

allows body temp to drop close to ambient temp for several days in winter

116
Q

Hibernation is common in __ and rare in__

A

mammals; birds

117
Q

Define estivation

A

hibernation in summer for endotherms

118
Q

What is a daily alternative of hybernation?

A

torpor

119
Q

Daily torpor is used by many small ___, to escape high __ demands of each night

A

endotherms; energy

120
Q

Controlled hypothermia is __ __

A

facultative ectothermy

121
Q

What is a common strategy of cooling about the TNZ?

A

enhancing evaporative cooling which increases heat transfer to extremeties

122
Q

What are mechanisms of enhancing evaporative cooling?

A

gular fluttering, panting, and sweating

123
Q

What are some examples of behavioral thermoregulation?

A

moving to shade, changing orientation to the sun, burrowing

124
Q

How do homeotherms survive in hot environments?

A

cycling body temperature and hyperthermia

125
Q

Describe cycling of homeotherms

A

allowing body temperature to rise above set point during the hot day, and drop below set point at night

126
Q

How does cycling of body temp help temperature regulation of homeotherms?

A

reduces water loss by evaporative cooling during the day, conducting stored heat to ground during the night

127
Q

Hyperthermis is common in __ and rarer in __

A

birds; mammals

128
Q

How does hyperthermia help homeotherms?

A

allows body temperature to increase to profoundly high temps (decreases Tb-Ta and therefore reduces heat gain and need to cool by evaporative means).

129
Q

Permeability of ion channels determines?

A

membrane resistance and capacitance

130
Q

Define capacitor

A

charge-separating device

131
Q

Membrane potential (Vm) is due to __ of __ near the __, even though the bulk solution is electrically __

A

gathering, ions, membrane
neutral

132
Q

Vm is approximately?

A

-65 mV, negative on the inside relative to the outside

133
Q

Why is Vm not zero?

A

selective permeability of the membrane to ions of K+, drives Vm in cells

134
Q

Where does the -65 mV resting membrane potential come from?

A

Nernst eq - concentration differences of only one ion
Goldman eq - accounts for actual permeability of all the ions on either side of the cell membrane

135
Q

Define the nerst equation

A

electrochemical equilibrium for an ion species - assumes the ion would come to equilibrium (100% permeable)

136
Q

Define the goldman equation

A

calculates the membrane potential when more than one ion is permeable

137
Q

What are the three most permeable ions?

A

K+, Na+, and Cl-

138
Q

In resting state, __ is the most permeable ion, and thus the resting membrane potential is close to __

A

K
Ex - electromotive forces (Vm of Ion)

139
Q

The __ of K is so much __ than that of __ or __, that K __ dominates the membrane potential

A

permeability; higher
Na, Cl
flux/ current

140
Q

Adjusting ion __ can change __

A

permeabilities; Vm

141
Q

Changing __ can produce a?

A

Em (Vm)
action potential

142
Q

Define depolarization

A

moving towards zero, less negative

143
Q

Define hyperpolarization

A

moving away from zero, more negative

144
Q

Describe the stages of an action potential

A

resting membrane potential -> rising phase -> falling phase -> recovery

145
Q

Describe the membrane during the resting membrane potential

A

only K+ leak channel is open, voltage gated Na and K are shut

146
Q

Describe the membrane during the rising phase

A

K leak channel is open, Voltage gated Na is. open and allowing Na inside the cell, voltage gated K is closed

147
Q

Describe the membrane during the falling phase

A

K leak channel is open, voltage gated Na channel inactivates and voltage gated K opens, letting K out of the cell

148
Q

Describe the membrane during the recovery period

A

K leak channel and voltage gated allows K in and out of the cell, voltage gated Na channel is closed

149
Q

Propagation rate of action potentials is influenced by?

A

temperature, axon diameter, and myelination

150
Q

How does temperature affect propagation rate?

A

higher temp causes faster conduction

151
Q

How does axon diameter influence propagation rate?

A

larger axon diameter, faster conduction

152
Q

How does myelination impact propagation rate?

A

myelin speeds conduction enormously

153
Q

Spiking neurons have long __ and produce __ ___

A

neurons; action potentials

154
Q

Spiking neuron: all or non action potentials are __ into __ __ of neurotransmitters at the __ terminals

A

translated; graded secretion; axon

155
Q

What is found at the input of a spiking neuron?

A

graded potential
action-potential encoding

156
Q

What happens are the output of a spiking neuron?

A

action-potential propagation
neurotransmitter secretion

157
Q

Non-spiking neurons are _ and produce __ __

A

shorter;
no action potentials

158
Q

What happens at the input of a nonspiking neuron?

A

graded potential

159
Q

What happens are the output of a nonspiking neuron?

A

graded potential, neurotransmitter secretion

Physiology (4 decks)

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