Exam Four: Learning Objectives Flashcards
1
Q
How do you find partial pressure?
A
Px = FxPtot
2
Q
What is the partial pressure for oxygen?
A
20.95%
3
Q
What is the partial pressure for nitrogen?
A
78.08%
4
Q
What is the partial pressure for argon?
A
0.93%
5
Q
What is the partial pressure for carbon dioxide?
A
0.04%
6
Q
How do you find the concentration of a gas?
A
Cx = APx
7
Q
A is __ for each gas
A
different
8
Q
The __ __ and __ of gas dissolved in solution are proportional to each other. Solubility is given by the __ coefficient (_)
A
Partial pressure (P)
Concentration (C)
absorption (A)
9
Q
T/F: Concentration changes with the environment
A
true
10
Q
The solubility of gas decreases with __ and __
A
temperature; salinity
11
Q
Define the principle of respiratory gas transfer
A
J = K (P1-P2)/X
J = flux (diffusion) rate
K = ease of diffusion through medium
X = distance to diffuse
P1-P2 = Difference in partial pressures
12
Q
K in the principle of respiratory gas transfer is referred to as what in the case of membranes?
A
Krogh diffusion coefficient; gas permeability coefficient
13
Q
Gas travels from _ to _ partial pressure
A
high; low
14
Q
Partial pressure determines the __ and __ of gas movement
A
rate; direction
15
Q
T/F: Concentration of gas always travels from high to low
A
False
16
Q
Discuss the oxygen cascade in people
A
High partial pressure to low
Ambient air -> Alveolar gas -> arterial blood -> average systemic capillary blood -> mitochondria
17
Q
In countercurrent gas exchange, the partial pressure gradient remains the __ and blood and air/water __ __ equilibrium
A
same; never reach
18
Q
Partial pressure of O2 in blood is __ than excurrent air/water
A
lower
19
Q
Who might use cross-current gas exchange?
A
birds
20
Q
In cross-current gas exchange, the partial pressure gradient remains ___, with __ __ between blood and air/water
A
about the same
no equilibrium
21
Q
What is tidal gas exchange?
A
air is pumped into and out of a blind chamber, and gases diffuse across the epithelia into or out of the blood
22
Q
The partial pressure of O2 in the blood is __ .. this system achieves the __ partial pressure in the blood of the three types
A
lower
least
most inefficient
23
Q
What are the three types of gas exchange?
A
countercurrent, cross-current, and tidal
24
Q
Define resting tidal volume
A
volume of air inhaled and exhaled per breath
25
Define vital capacity
maxim possible tidal volume
26
Define residual volume
after maximal expiratory effort, the amount that remains in the lung; responsible for reduce partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli (relative to atomospheric)
27
Residual volume, tidal volume, and vital capacity are all found in?
Mammals
28
Why is there stale air in the lungs?
air from the last breath is never fully expelled from the alveoli
29
Define convection
during ventilation
responsible for tidal movement of air in the lung
30
What is unique about air in the alveolar sacs?
motionless; aerial gas exchange in the lungs is dependent on diffusion
31
Who might utilize their skin for achieving the highest percentage of gas exchange?
salamanders
32
What is the function of medullary chemoreceptors?
respond independently to both high pCO2 and low pH (although these usually vary
33
Describe what happens if the blood pCO2 rises
more Co2 crosses the blood-brain-barrier into the CSF, this wil acidify the CSF and further excite the medullary chemoreceptors
34
What happens when the medullary chemoreceptors become activated?
changes in ventilation (increase) to bring back the concentrations of CO2 and therefore bring H+ back to normal
35
Most CO2 transport is transported as?
bicarbonate
36
Most CO2 in plasma reacts with __ to form __, which then dissociates into __ and __
water, carbonic acid
proton (acid), bicarbonate
37
__ reaction is reversed in the lungs where the CO2 is low
bicarbonate reaction, the CO2 can then diffuse into the alveoli to be exhaled
38
Describe the CO2 flow though the body
tissues across capillary endothelium to blood across respiratory epithelium to environment
39
In some animals, the conversion of HCO3- (bicarbonate) is __ in the blood; this is a __ reaction, and uses __ __
catalyzed; fast
carbonic anhydrase
40
The CO2 to HCO3- conversion may be __. which is __
uncatalyzed; slow - no carbonic anhydrase
41
Discuss CO2 uptake in the red blood cells
uses carbonic anhydrase - fast
chloride shift, exchanges a cl and then is transported into the respiratory zone
42
During the chloride shift, HCO3- is transported out of the cell via __ __
facilitated diffusion
43
Hemoglobin acts as a pH __ by taking up __ ions
buffer; H+
any oxygen attached goes to muscles
44
Hemoglobin is a __, which means __ affects it
protein; temperature
45
What are four things that hemoglobin has a role in?
CO2, O2 transport
pH buffer
affected by temperature
46
__ blood carries more CO2
deoxygenated
47
__ hemoglobin releases protons, eliminating bicarbonate
releases
48
__ hemoglobin accepts __, producing more bicarbonate
deoxygenated; protons
49
T/F: Oxygen binding to hemoglobin decreases the affinity for protons to bind
true - Haldane effect
50
Oxygen comes through the mouth to the lungs via __ but from the lungs to the tissues/ blood vessels via __
convection; diffusion
51
The affinity of the respiratory pigments (__) are measured by P50, which means?
hemoglobin
partial pressure of O2 at which 50% of the heme groups are bound
52
P50 is similar to __ concept of enzymes
Km
53
the higher the temperature, the __ the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin
lower
54
Describe the Bohr Effect
O2 affinity depends on the pCO2 and pH
55
T/F: Hemoglobin has the highest affinity for Oxygen
false - carbon dioxide
56
The __ the pH (more __), the lower the oxygen binding affinity
lower; acidic
57
The __ the partial pressure of CO2, the lower the oxygen binding affinity
higher
58
What are the two types of circulatory systems?
open and closed
59
Who has open circulatory systems?
decapods and crusteceans
60
Describe an open circulatory system
big heart chamber where oxygenated blood comes from the gills, gets squeezed out through the body to tissues and becomes deoxygenated
reservoir of deoxygenated blood pools until it goes out thru the gills to be oxygenated again
61
What are two examples of invertebrates that have a closed circulatory system?
cephalopods and earthworms
62
Cephalopods have __ hearts, (__ branchial - one for each gill- and one __ - for everything else)
three; two
systemic
63
Where do the gills of a cephalopod empty to?
systemic heart
64
Describe the flow of the closed circulatory system of a cephalopod
oxygenated blood comes in from gils to system heart which goes to systemic tissues, and deoxygenated blood goes back to brachial hearts which goes to gills for oxygenation
65
The telost heart pumps __ blood, via the ventral __, through the gill capillaries toward the __ aorta. The blood is then pumped in __ directions in the __ aorta; toward the __ and the __
deoxygenated
aorta
dorsal
two
dorsal
head; tail
66
How many heart chambers does a telost fish have?
two
67
How many heart chambers does an amphibian have?
three
68
What are the three chambers of the amphibian heart?
two separate aorta and a common ventricle
69
Along with salamanders, __ are good are skin transpiration
amphibians
70
In amphibians, __ blood has the opportunity to __ with __ blood in the heart __
oxygenated; mix; deoxygenated; ventricle
71
Describe the flow of oxygen rich and poor blood in amphibians
mostly oxygenated blood goes to systemic tissues, comes back as deoxygenated to right heart
mostly deoxygenated blood comes from right heart and goes to skin or lungs to become oxygenated
72
In amphibians the _- heart is mostly deoxygenated and the __ heart is mostly oxygenated
right; left
73
What are examples of non-crocodilian reptiles?
snakes, lizards, and some turtles
74
Discuss the chambers of non-crocodilian reptiles
three chambers
two aortas
one ventricle
75
Non-crocodilian reptiles have a __ divided __, which leads to a __ amount of blood __
partially ventricle
small; mixing
76
In non-crocodilian reptiles, the _ heart is mostly deoxygenated and the _ heart is mostly oxygenated
right; left
77
Describe the blood flow through a non-crocodilian closed circulatory system
left heart - mostly oxygenated goes to skin and systemic tissues
skin oxygenates, but returns and deoxygenated to right heart
systemic tissues returns to right heart as deoxygenated
deoxygenated blood leaves right heart and goes to lungs to be oxygenated and pushed back into the left heart
78
Crocodilian reptiles have a __ separated, __ chambered heart
completely
four
79
T/F: Crocodilian reptiles have completely divided circulation
false; valves will close dependent on situation, diving or breathing
80
Discuss the chambering of a human heart
four chambers - two ventricles and two aortas
81
The mammalian heart has __-way valves to prevent __
one
backflow
82
The __ side of the heart has higher pressure and thicker walls
left
83
Describe the blood flow through a mammalian heart
oxygenated blood from lungs goes in left atria to left ventricle and travels to the systemic aorta, then delivers blood to head or tissues (systemically)
deoxygenated blood comes back to right atria to right ventricle and uses pulmonary artery to go to lungs
84
What are the four steps of electrical conduction?
1. depolarization begins in SA node and spreads out via gap junctions
2. Depolarization thru atria, spread through AV node is delayed
3. AV node depolarizes, spreading toward inferior ventricles (bundle branches)
4. Depolarization spreads thru ventricles via gap junctions and the heart contracts
85
What is the hearts pacemaker?
SA node
86
What are the five phases of the cardiac cycle?
atrial systole
isovolumetric contraction
ventricular ejection
isovolumetric relaxation
ventricular filing
87
You have to _- before you can __
contract
relax
88
Systole is to __ and diastole is to __
contraction
relaxation
89
What determines the direction of blood flow within the heart?
one-way cardiac valves
90
What does the P wave represent?
atrial depolarization
91
What does the QRS complex represent?
atrial repolarization and ventricular depolarization
92
What does the T wave represent?
ventricular repolarization
93
During which two periods are both valves closed?
isovolumetric contraction and relaxation
94
During isovolumetric contraction and relaxation, the volume is __
stationary
95
Describe ventricular blood pressure through the cardiac cycle
atrial systole - slight depolarization
isovolumetric contraction = sharp depolarization
ventricular ejection - curve, equal parts de and repolarization
isovolumetric relaxation - repolarization - sharp
ventricular filling - hyperpolarization
96
How do you calculate cardiac output?
heart rate (bpm) x stroke volume
97
Heart rate and stroke volume have a __ relationship in terms of cardiac output
direct
98
What is the equation to find blood pressure (P)?
blood flow (cardiac output) x resistance
99
Cardiac output and resistance have a __ relationship
direct
100
Both radius and __ and resistance and __ __ have an inverse relationship
resistance
flow rate
101
What is the equation for resistance?
8L n / pi r^4
102
What is the equation for flow rate?
(P1-P2)/R
103
What are the three fluid compartments in the body?
Intracellular body fluid
interstitial fluid
blood plasma
104
Where is 2/3 of the body fluid in mammals found?
intracellular blood fluid
105
Very __ of the fluid in the body is found in the blood plasma
little
106
Because __ ions perform many functions, such as __ potentials, they __ regulated to maintain cell __
inorganic
membrane
aren't
volume
107
Organic molecules (_) are regulated to control __ __
amino acids
cell volume
108
Osmotic pressure is proportional to the __ of dissolved __
concentration
entities
109
If water moves _ to something via osmosis, the osmotic pressure will __ (more __ than the __ entities)
in
decrease
water
dissolved
110
If you decrease the concentration of water, you __ the osmotic pressure
decrease
111
Freshwater animals are __ regulators
hyperosmotic
112
What are two challenges freshwater animals struggle with?
conserving internal ions and eliminating water gained by osmosis
113
Describe passive and active shit of animals in freshwater
passively - salt loss by diffusion, water gain by osmosis
actively - gains salts and water in food, relieves copious, dilute urine, active absorption of Na and Cl
114
Freshwater animals tend to passively __ from/to the environment
gain water and lose ions
115
Freshwater animals tend to actively __ from/to the environment
lose water and gain ions
116
Marine animals, including __ are __ regulators
telost
hyposmotic
117
What are the challenges to hyposomotic life?
conserve water loss to the environment and limit uptake of ions via diffusion
118
Marine telost fish passively __ adn actively __
passively - gain salt, lose water, gain salts by gills
actively - ingest salt and water, excrete salts
119
Describe the water loss/gain in marine telost fish
water loss by osmosis
salt and water gain in food and ingested water
120
Describe salt gain/ loss in marine teleosts
salt gain by diffusion, salts and water ingested from seawater, active extrusion of monovalent ions, small amounts of urine to release divalent ions
121
Marine reptiles are __
hyposmotic
122
Marine reptiles include ...
sea turtles, sea snakes, marine iguanas, salt water crocodiles, and marine birds
123
What are the osmotic challenges of marine reptiles?
remain hydrated without a strong source of freshwater available
124
What is an adaptation that helps marine reptiles and marine animals (teleosts)
salt glands
chloride cells
125
What is the function of chloride cells/ salt glands?
help remove salt from the body via removal of monovalent ions
126
The _ __ is located in the head of marine reptiles, and enable them to drink __ and extract __
salt gland
seawater; freshwater
127
Describe the water and salt balance of marine reptiles
drinking - gain salt and water
salt gland - excrete water
excretion thru urine - salts and water
128
Sharks tend to passively __ from/ to the environment
gain water
129
What animals make up marine elasmobranch fish?
sharks, skates, and rays
130
Marine elasmobranch fish are __ and __
hyperosmotic
hypoionic
131
Why are elasmobranchs hypoionic?
much of osmolarity is accounted for by production of organic solutes (mainly urea)
132
Describe the water balance of marine elasmobranchs
passively gain water by osmosis
ingest salts and water in food - generally do not drink
modest amounts of urine
133
Describe the salt balance of marine elasmobranchs
passive salt diffusion gain across gills
actively ingest salts and water in food - generally do not drink
active, lose moderate amounts of urine - divalent ions
active, rectal gland secretions - most monovalent ions - most release
