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Physiology > Exam Four: Learning Objectives > Flashcards

Exam Four: Learning Objectives Flashcards

1
Q

How do you find partial pressure?

A

Px = FxPtot

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2
Q

What is the partial pressure for oxygen?

A

20.95%

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3
Q

What is the partial pressure for nitrogen?

A

78.08%

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4
Q

What is the partial pressure for argon?

A

0.93%

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5
Q

What is the partial pressure for carbon dioxide?

A

0.04%

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6
Q

How do you find the concentration of a gas?

A

Cx = APx

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7
Q

A is __ for each gas

A

different

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8
Q

The __ __ and __ of gas dissolved in solution are proportional to each other. Solubility is given by the __ coefficient (_)

A

Partial pressure (P)
Concentration (C)
absorption (A)

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9
Q

T/F: Concentration changes with the environment

A

true

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10
Q

The solubility of gas decreases with __ and __

A

temperature; salinity

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11
Q

Define the principle of respiratory gas transfer

A

J = K (P1-P2)/X
J = flux (diffusion) rate
K = ease of diffusion through medium
X = distance to diffuse
P1-P2 = Difference in partial pressures

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12
Q

K in the principle of respiratory gas transfer is referred to as what in the case of membranes?

A

Krogh diffusion coefficient; gas permeability coefficient

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13
Q

Gas travels from _ to _ partial pressure

A

high; low

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14
Q

Partial pressure determines the __ and __ of gas movement

A

rate; direction

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15
Q

T/F: Concentration of gas always travels from high to low

A

False

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16
Q

Discuss the oxygen cascade in people

A

High partial pressure to low
Ambient air -> Alveolar gas -> arterial blood -> average systemic capillary blood -> mitochondria

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17
Q

In countercurrent gas exchange, the partial pressure gradient remains the __ and blood and air/water __ __ equilibrium

A

same; never reach

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18
Q

Partial pressure of O2 in blood is __ than excurrent air/water

A

lower

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19
Q

Who might use cross-current gas exchange?

A

birds

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20
Q

In cross-current gas exchange, the partial pressure gradient remains ___, with __ __ between blood and air/water

A

about the same
no equilibrium

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21
Q

What is tidal gas exchange?

A

air is pumped into and out of a blind chamber, and gases diffuse across the epithelia into or out of the blood

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22
Q

The partial pressure of O2 in the blood is __ .. this system achieves the __ partial pressure in the blood of the three types

A

lower
least
most inefficient

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23
Q

What are the three types of gas exchange?

A

countercurrent, cross-current, and tidal

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24
Q

Define resting tidal volume

A

volume of air inhaled and exhaled per breath

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25
Q

Define vital capacity

A

maxim possible tidal volume

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26
Q

Define residual volume

A

after maximal expiratory effort, the amount that remains in the lung; responsible for reduce partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli (relative to atomospheric)

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27
Q

Residual volume, tidal volume, and vital capacity are all found in?

A

Mammals

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28
Q

Why is there stale air in the lungs?

A

air from the last breath is never fully expelled from the alveoli

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29
Q

Define convection

A

during ventilation
responsible for tidal movement of air in the lung

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30
Q

What is unique about air in the alveolar sacs?

A

motionless; aerial gas exchange in the lungs is dependent on diffusion

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31
Q

Who might utilize their skin for achieving the highest percentage of gas exchange?

A

salamanders

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32
Q

What is the function of medullary chemoreceptors?

A

respond independently to both high pCO2 and low pH (although these usually vary

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33
Q

Describe what happens if the blood pCO2 rises

A

more Co2 crosses the blood-brain-barrier into the CSF, this wil acidify the CSF and further excite the medullary chemoreceptors

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34
Q

What happens when the medullary chemoreceptors become activated?

A

changes in ventilation (increase) to bring back the concentrations of CO2 and therefore bring H+ back to normal

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35
Q

Most CO2 transport is transported as?

A

bicarbonate

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36
Q

Most CO2 in plasma reacts with __ to form __, which then dissociates into __ and __

A

water, carbonic acid
proton (acid), bicarbonate

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37
Q

__ reaction is reversed in the lungs where the CO2 is low

A

bicarbonate reaction, the CO2 can then diffuse into the alveoli to be exhaled

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38
Q

Describe the CO2 flow though the body

A

tissues across capillary endothelium to blood across respiratory epithelium to environment

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39
Q

In some animals, the conversion of HCO3- (bicarbonate) is __ in the blood; this is a __ reaction, and uses __ __

A

catalyzed; fast
carbonic anhydrase

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40
Q

The CO2 to HCO3- conversion may be __. which is __

A

uncatalyzed; slow - no carbonic anhydrase

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41
Q

Discuss CO2 uptake in the red blood cells

A

uses carbonic anhydrase - fast
chloride shift, exchanges a cl and then is transported into the respiratory zone

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42
Q

During the chloride shift, HCO3- is transported out of the cell via __ __

A

facilitated diffusion

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43
Q

Hemoglobin acts as a pH __ by taking up __ ions

A

buffer; H+
any oxygen attached goes to muscles

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44
Q

Hemoglobin is a __, which means __ affects it

A

protein; temperature

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45
Q

What are four things that hemoglobin has a role in?

A

CO2, O2 transport
pH buffer
affected by temperature

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46
Q

__ blood carries more CO2

A

deoxygenated

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47
Q

__ hemoglobin releases protons, eliminating bicarbonate

A

releases

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48
Q

__ hemoglobin accepts __, producing more bicarbonate

A

deoxygenated; protons

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49
Q

T/F: Oxygen binding to hemoglobin decreases the affinity for protons to bind

A

true - Haldane effect

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50
Q

Oxygen comes through the mouth to the lungs via __ but from the lungs to the tissues/ blood vessels via __

A

convection; diffusion

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51
Q

The affinity of the respiratory pigments (__) are measured by P50, which means?

A

hemoglobin
partial pressure of O2 at which 50% of the heme groups are bound

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52
Q

P50 is similar to __ concept of enzymes

A

Km

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53
Q

the higher the temperature, the __ the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin

A

lower

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54
Q

Describe the Bohr Effect

A

O2 affinity depends on the pCO2 and pH

55
Q

T/F: Hemoglobin has the highest affinity for Oxygen

A

false - carbon dioxide

56
Q

The __ the pH (more __), the lower the oxygen binding affinity

A

lower; acidic

57
Q

The __ the partial pressure of CO2, the lower the oxygen binding affinity

A

higher

58
Q

What are the two types of circulatory systems?

A

open and closed

59
Q

Who has open circulatory systems?

A

decapods and crusteceans

60
Q

Describe an open circulatory system

A

big heart chamber where oxygenated blood comes from the gills, gets squeezed out through the body to tissues and becomes deoxygenated
reservoir of deoxygenated blood pools until it goes out thru the gills to be oxygenated again

61
Q

What are two examples of invertebrates that have a closed circulatory system?

A

cephalopods and earthworms

62
Q

Cephalopods have __ hearts, (__ branchial - one for each gill- and one __ - for everything else)

A

three; two
systemic

63
Q

Where do the gills of a cephalopod empty to?

A

systemic heart

64
Q

Describe the flow of the closed circulatory system of a cephalopod

A

oxygenated blood comes in from gils to system heart which goes to systemic tissues, and deoxygenated blood goes back to brachial hearts which goes to gills for oxygenation

65
Q

The telost heart pumps __ blood, via the ventral __, through the gill capillaries toward the __ aorta. The blood is then pumped in __ directions in the __ aorta; toward the __ and the __

A

deoxygenated
aorta
dorsal
two
dorsal
head; tail

66
Q

How many heart chambers does a telost fish have?

A

two

67
Q

How many heart chambers does an amphibian have?

A

three

68
Q

What are the three chambers of the amphibian heart?

A

two separate aorta and a common ventricle

69
Q

Along with salamanders, __ are good are skin transpiration

A

amphibians

70
Q

In amphibians, __ blood has the opportunity to __ with __ blood in the heart __

A

oxygenated; mix; deoxygenated; ventricle

71
Q

Describe the flow of oxygen rich and poor blood in amphibians

A

mostly oxygenated blood goes to systemic tissues, comes back as deoxygenated to right heart
mostly deoxygenated blood comes from right heart and goes to skin or lungs to become oxygenated

72
Q

In amphibians the _- heart is mostly deoxygenated and the __ heart is mostly oxygenated

A

right; left

73
Q

What are examples of non-crocodilian reptiles?

A

snakes, lizards, and some turtles

74
Q

Discuss the chambers of non-crocodilian reptiles

A

three chambers
two aortas
one ventricle

75
Q

Non-crocodilian reptiles have a __ divided __, which leads to a __ amount of blood __

A

partially ventricle
small; mixing

76
Q

In non-crocodilian reptiles, the _ heart is mostly deoxygenated and the _ heart is mostly oxygenated

A

right; left

77
Q

Describe the blood flow through a non-crocodilian closed circulatory system

A

left heart - mostly oxygenated goes to skin and systemic tissues
skin oxygenates, but returns and deoxygenated to right heart
systemic tissues returns to right heart as deoxygenated
deoxygenated blood leaves right heart and goes to lungs to be oxygenated and pushed back into the left heart

78
Q

Crocodilian reptiles have a __ separated, __ chambered heart

A

completely
four

79
Q

T/F: Crocodilian reptiles have completely divided circulation

A

false; valves will close dependent on situation, diving or breathing

80
Q

Discuss the chambering of a human heart

A

four chambers - two ventricles and two aortas

81
Q

The mammalian heart has __-way valves to prevent __

A

one
backflow

82
Q

The __ side of the heart has higher pressure and thicker walls

A

left

83
Q

Describe the blood flow through a mammalian heart

A

oxygenated blood from lungs goes in left atria to left ventricle and travels to the systemic aorta, then delivers blood to head or tissues (systemically)
deoxygenated blood comes back to right atria to right ventricle and uses pulmonary artery to go to lungs

84
Q

What are the four steps of electrical conduction?

A
  1. depolarization begins in SA node and spreads out via gap junctions
  2. Depolarization thru atria, spread through AV node is delayed
  3. AV node depolarizes, spreading toward inferior ventricles (bundle branches)
  4. Depolarization spreads thru ventricles via gap junctions and the heart contracts
85
Q

What is the hearts pacemaker?

A

SA node

86
Q

What are the five phases of the cardiac cycle?

A

atrial systole
isovolumetric contraction
ventricular ejection
isovolumetric relaxation
ventricular filing

87
Q

You have to _- before you can __

A

contract
relax

88
Q

Systole is to __ and diastole is to __

A

contraction
relaxation

89
Q

What determines the direction of blood flow within the heart?

A

one-way cardiac valves

90
Q

What does the P wave represent?

A

atrial depolarization

91
Q

What does the QRS complex represent?

A

atrial repolarization and ventricular depolarization

92
Q

What does the T wave represent?

A

ventricular repolarization

93
Q

During which two periods are both valves closed?

A

isovolumetric contraction and relaxation

94
Q

During isovolumetric contraction and relaxation, the volume is __

A

stationary

95
Q

Describe ventricular blood pressure through the cardiac cycle

A

atrial systole - slight depolarization
isovolumetric contraction = sharp depolarization
ventricular ejection - curve, equal parts de and repolarization
isovolumetric relaxation - repolarization - sharp
ventricular filling - hyperpolarization

96
Q

How do you calculate cardiac output?

A

heart rate (bpm) x stroke volume

97
Q

Heart rate and stroke volume have a __ relationship in terms of cardiac output

A

direct

98
Q

What is the equation to find blood pressure (P)?

A

blood flow (cardiac output) x resistance

99
Q

Cardiac output and resistance have a __ relationship

A

direct

100
Q

Both radius and __ and resistance and __ __ have an inverse relationship

A

resistance
flow rate

101
Q

What is the equation for resistance?

A

8L n / pi r^4

102
Q

What is the equation for flow rate?

A

(P1-P2)/R

103
Q

What are the three fluid compartments in the body?

A

Intracellular body fluid
interstitial fluid
blood plasma

104
Q

Where is 2/3 of the body fluid in mammals found?

A

intracellular blood fluid

105
Q

Very __ of the fluid in the body is found in the blood plasma

A

little

106
Q

Because __ ions perform many functions, such as __ potentials, they __ regulated to maintain cell __

A

inorganic
membrane
aren’t
volume

107
Q

Organic molecules (_) are regulated to control __ __

A

amino acids
cell volume

108
Q

Osmotic pressure is proportional to the __ of dissolved __

A

concentration
entities

109
Q

If water moves _ to something via osmosis, the osmotic pressure will __ (more __ than the __ entities)

A

in
decrease
water
dissolved

110
Q

If you decrease the concentration of water, you __ the osmotic pressure

A

decrease

111
Q

Freshwater animals are __ regulators

A

hyperosmotic

112
Q

What are two challenges freshwater animals struggle with?

A

conserving internal ions and eliminating water gained by osmosis

113
Q

Describe passive and active shit of animals in freshwater

A

passively - salt loss by diffusion, water gain by osmosis
actively - gains salts and water in food, relieves copious, dilute urine, active absorption of Na and Cl

114
Q

Freshwater animals tend to passively __ from/to the environment

A

gain water and lose ions

115
Q

Freshwater animals tend to actively __ from/to the environment

A

lose water and gain ions

116
Q

Marine animals, including __ are __ regulators

A

telost
hyposmotic

117
Q

What are the challenges to hyposomotic life?

A

conserve water loss to the environment and limit uptake of ions via diffusion

118
Q

Marine telost fish passively __ adn actively __

A

passively - gain salt, lose water, gain salts by gills
actively - ingest salt and water, excrete salts

119
Q

Describe the water loss/gain in marine telost fish

A

water loss by osmosis
salt and water gain in food and ingested water

120
Q

Describe salt gain/ loss in marine teleosts

A

salt gain by diffusion, salts and water ingested from seawater, active extrusion of monovalent ions, small amounts of urine to release divalent ions

121
Q

Marine reptiles are __

A

hyposmotic

122
Q

Marine reptiles include …

A

sea turtles, sea snakes, marine iguanas, salt water crocodiles, and marine birds

123
Q

What are the osmotic challenges of marine reptiles?

A

remain hydrated without a strong source of freshwater available

124
Q

What is an adaptation that helps marine reptiles and marine animals (teleosts)

A

salt glands
chloride cells

125
Q

What is the function of chloride cells/ salt glands?

A

help remove salt from the body via removal of monovalent ions

126
Q

The _ __ is located in the head of marine reptiles, and enable them to drink __ and extract __

A

salt gland
seawater; freshwater

127
Q

Describe the water and salt balance of marine reptiles

A

drinking - gain salt and water
salt gland - excrete water
excretion thru urine - salts and water

128
Q

Sharks tend to passively __ from/ to the environment

A

gain water

129
Q

What animals make up marine elasmobranch fish?

A

sharks, skates, and rays

130
Q

Marine elasmobranch fish are __ and __

A

hyperosmotic
hypoionic

131
Q

Why are elasmobranchs hypoionic?

A

much of osmolarity is accounted for by production of organic solutes (mainly urea)

132
Q

Describe the water balance of marine elasmobranchs

A

passively gain water by osmosis
ingest salts and water in food - generally do not drink
modest amounts of urine

133
Q

Describe the salt balance of marine elasmobranchs

A

passive salt diffusion gain across gills
actively ingest salts and water in food - generally do not drink
active, lose moderate amounts of urine - divalent ions
active, rectal gland secretions - most monovalent ions - most release

Physiology (4 decks)

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