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Physiology > Exam One: Learning Objectives > Flashcards

Exam One: Learning Objectives Flashcards

1
Q

What is the reason for homeostasis?

A

organisms maximize their chances of survival by maintaining homeostasis

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2
Q

How is homeostasis maintained?

A

control theory

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3
Q

__ needs to be added to the system for homeostasis to be maintained

A

energy

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4
Q

Define entropy

A

tendency for all matter and energy in the universe to evolve toward a state of inert uniformity

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5
Q

Contrast entropy and homeostasis

A

homeostasis is the tendency of biology to fight entropy to maintain internal equilibrium by adjusting its physiological process

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6
Q

Differentiate mechanistic and evolutionary physiology?

A

mechanistic - how does it work
evolutionary - why does it work?

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7
Q

Define an adaptation

A

an alteration or adjustment in the structure or behavior by natural selection

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8
Q

T/F: every observable trait is an adaptation

A

FALSE - must be tested

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9
Q

Evolution shapes __

A

physiology

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10
Q

Define evolution

A

process that allows populations of organisms to adapt to their environment; changes in allele frequencies of a gene, of a population over time

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11
Q

What are three major factors animals need to deal with in their environment?

A

Temperature, oxygen, and water

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12
Q

Describe the relation of temperature and environment

A

important for determining the rates of chemical reactions and the actions of enzymes in biological systems

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13
Q

Describe the relation of oxygen and environment

A

animals need oxygen for metabolic energy (to form ATP)

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14
Q

What are two environments that impact oxygen?

A

high elevation and water

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15
Q

Organisms may ___ or __ in respect to their environments

A

regulate; conform

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16
Q

Discuss the pros and cons of regulation

A

cells can function independently from the environment but costs a lot of energy

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17
Q

Discuss the pros and cons of conformity

A

energetically cheap; cells are subject to changes dependent on environmental conditions

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18
Q

organisms can _- to the environment or __ it

A

conform; regulate

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19
Q

What are the three major time frames of physiological responses?

A

acute, acclimatization, and adaptation

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20
Q

Define the acute response

A

temporary, immediate response

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21
Q

What are examples of an acute response?

A

movement, inflammation, cell stress response, and adjustment of ventilation/ heart rate

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22
Q

Define the acclimatization response

A

reversible physiological adjustment over several days

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23
Q

What are examples of an acclimatization response?

A

adjustment of metabolic rate, lung capacity, or makeup of cell membrane

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24
Q

Define the adaptation response

A

permanent physiological adjustments over evolutionary time

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25
Q

__ can happen within an animals life time but __ can only occur between generations

A

acclimatization; adaptation

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26
Q

Which physiological response is recorded in DNA?

A

only adaptation

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27
Q

Adaptation is often, but not always, pronounced __

A

phenotypically

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28
Q

___ can maintain in a species long enough for genetic __ to occur

A

acclimatization; adaptation

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29
Q

__ is usually reversible; but adaptation is __

A

acclimatization; non-reversible

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30
Q

What is the function of the plasma membrane?

A

the barrier between the cell and the environment

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31
Q

Membrane function depends on __

A

fluidity

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32
Q

Membrane fluidity depends on __ of the __ tail

A

saturation; hydrocarbon

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33
Q

Membranes have embedded __ which provide __

A

proteins; functionality

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34
Q

What are the three kinds of plasma membrane proteins?

A

channels and transporters
enzymes
receptors

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35
Q

Define an enzyme

A

facilitate chemical reactions; required to maintain virtually every tissue and function

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36
Q

an enzyme catalyzes the reaction in its __ __

A

active site

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37
Q

The greater the lowering of activation energy and faster the enzyme can change shape, the greater the __

A

catalytic effectiveness (kcat)

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38
Q

At high substrate concentrations, all enzymes are engaged and this ___ __ reaches its limit

A

reaction velocity (vmax)

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39
Q

__ of the reaction is proportional to __ concentration

A

velocity; substrate

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40
Q

Km is equal to?

A

substrate concentration at 1/2 vmax

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41
Q

Define enzyme-substrate affinity (Km)

A

affects velocity as well, in addition to substrate concentration

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42
Q

What are the four factors that influence reaction velocity?

A
  1. number of active enzyme molecules
  2. concentration of substrate
  3. enzyme-substrate affinity (Km)
  4. Catalytic effectiveness (Kcat)
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43
Q

Kcat describes how __ the enzyme is

A

fast

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44
Q

Define a ligand

A

other molecules that bind with enzymes/ proteins; molecule that binds specifically and non-covalently to the receptor

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45
Q

What is signal transduction?

A

responding to an extracellular signal by altering cell function

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46
Q

Signal transduction is a sub process of ?

A

cell signaling

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47
Q

What are the four categories of receptors?

A

ligand-gated channels
G protein coupled
enzyme/ enzyme linked
intracellular

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48
Q

Define signal reception

A

detecting an extracellular signal

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49
Q

Describe ligand-gated channels.

A

ligand is released and binds to receptor, receptor opens channel permitting ion exchange between the cell and extracellular environment

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50
Q

Describe G protein-coupled receptors

A

a ligand (first messenger) binds to a G protein-coupled receptor on the cell membrane, receptor changes conformation, which activates a G protein and usually targets an enzume, which produces a secondary messenger (cAMP) which carries out signal transduction

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51
Q

Describe enzyme or enzyme linked receptors

A

ligand binds to receptor, which is bound to an enzyme or itself is an enzyme, results in activation of catalytic site of the enzyme across the membrane, resulting in production of a second messenger (cGMP)

52
Q

Describe intracellular receptors

A

a non-polar ligand (e.g. steroid hormone) enters and crosses the plasma membrane and enters the cell, the receptor for this ligand is either in cytosol or in nucleus, once ligand is bound to intracellular receptor; complex becomes an active transcription factor, which proceeds to activate specific primary response genes

53
Q

How does signal amplification occur during transduction?

A

during the transduction pathway, many reaction steps result in the production of many product molecules, waterfall of exponential proteins/ enzymes

54
Q

Describe an amplification cascade

A

single protein kinase 1 phosphorylates four protein 2 kinase which phosphorylate 16 protein kinase 3 and so on

55
Q

Cell signaling often involves both a __ __ and a __ __

A

secondary messenger; phosphorylation cascade

56
Q

What are the two processes of cell signaling

A

signal reception and signal transduction

57
Q

Define signal reception

A

detecting an extracellular signal

58
Q

What is cell signaling?

A

how cells tell each other what to do

59
Q

Gene knockout is the ultimate __ __ approach

A

bottom up

60
Q

Candidate proteins go with a ___ __ approach

A

top down

61
Q

Describe a top down approach

A

animal function to tissue function to tissue-specific proteins to genes

62
Q

Describe a bottom up approach?

A

Genes to tissue-specific proteins to tissue function to animal function

63
Q

DNA microarray is an a tool of?

A

transcriptomics

64
Q

Genomic sequencing is a tool of?

A

genomics

65
Q

2D protein gel electrophoresis is a tool of?

A

proteomics

66
Q

proteomics is the study of __

A

phenotype

67
Q

NMR is an example of?

A

metabolomics

68
Q

Describe human development with rats

A

human brain developed in matter of days, more sigmoidal
rat brain matter of days, more exponential

69
Q

Rats place a high emphasis on what development?

A

brain and reproductive

70
Q

Humans place the highest emphasis on __ development and the lowest on ___.

A

brain; reproductive

71
Q

Define phenotypic plasticity

A

the ability of an organism with a fixed genotype to display two or more different phenotypes

72
Q

Phenotype of adults of the same species can be different depending on their __ during __ (describes phenotypic plsticity)

A

environment; development

73
Q

Phenotypic plasticity may differ due to (3) things

A

environmental stress, time of year of development, social

74
Q

What is an example of stress in phenotypic plasticity?

A

having a more nurturing youth leads to taller children and earlier secondary development

75
Q

What is an example of seasons in phenotypic plasticity?

A

insects differ in color dependent on seasonal development - darker in spring for heat

76
Q

What is an example of social in phenotypic plasticity?

A

locust are solitary or gregarious depending on density; see locust, means lack of food, will become gregarious and swarm

77
Q

What is an epigenetic marking?

A

markings with no changes in DNA sequence that are transmitted during replication

78
Q

Epigenetic marking is often initiated by __ conditions via programmed control systems or chemical or physical forcing

A

environmental

79
Q

What is DNA methylation?

A

explains how our genome can be directly influenced by the environment and passed on to future generations

80
Q

What is the result and mechanism of DNA methylation?

A

addition of CH3 to cytosine results in silencing of genes

81
Q

Epigenetic modification can be due to two mechanisms.

A

histone modification and methylation

82
Q

Define passive transport

A

transport across a membrane that does not require energy (ATP)

83
Q

Define active transport

A

requires ATP

84
Q

Na+ and cl- ions are higher concentrations __ a cell

A

outside

85
Q

K+ is higher in concentration __ a cell

A

inside

86
Q

Ions travel through __ across the membrane

A

diffusion

87
Q

Electrical gradients provide __ energy

A

potential

88
Q

Both a concentration and electrical gradients point __ into the cell and __ out of the cell

A

Na
K

89
Q

__ is near electrochemical equilibrium in the cell because its chemical gradient points __ and its electric gradient points __

A

Cl
inward; outward

90
Q

Facilitated diffusion utilizes __ binding to __ proteins but is still __ and thus always occurs in the direction of __ equilibrium

A

reversible
transporter
electrochemical

91
Q

What determines diffusion rates?

A

J = D (c1-c2)/x

92
Q

Non-polar molecules (__ hormones) can dissolve in __ and this readily __ across membranes while others (__) cannot and thus require ___

A

steroid
lipids
diffuse
ions
channels

93
Q

Define ion channels

A

large protein complexes that permit transport of only select ions through passive mechansims

94
Q

What are the (4) types of ion channels?

A

voltage gated
strech-gated
phosphorylation-gated
ligand-gated

95
Q

Define osmosis

A

movemment of water down its own concentration gradient

96
Q

What are colligative properties defined by?

A

the number of dissolved solutess

97
Q

Osmotic pressure is __ in water with __ dissolved solutes

A

higher; more

98
Q

Water tends to move from __ to __ osmotic pressure

A

low; high

99
Q

In freshwater fish, osmotic pressure is __ in the fish than in the pond water

A

higher

100
Q

Sodium potassium pump is an example of?

A

primary active transport

101
Q

Sodium potassium pump uses __ to transport __ Na+ _ and _ K+ _

A

3 in
2 out

102
Q

What is an example of secondary active transport?

A

Na+/ glucose co-transporter

103
Q

Secondary active transport is dependent on?

A

the electrochemical gradient generated by primary active transport

104
Q

What is the function of lipids?

A

cell membranes, myelin, storage, waterproof, insulation

105
Q

Lipids are stored?

A

in the bodies of animals as energy source,

106
Q

__ has the greatest energy density of macronutrients

A

fat

107
Q

Animals and plants can __ fatty acids from carbohydrates, proteins, and from other fatty acids

A

synthesize

108
Q

Define fatty acids

A

chains of carbon atoms which aresaturated or unsaturated

109
Q

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated bonds?

A

saturated - no double bonds

110
Q

What are essential fatty acids?

A

fatty acids that cannot be syntehsized by the body; those that have a double bond in the third and sixth bond away from the methyl end

111
Q

What are the functions of proteins?

A

enzymes, muscles, antibodies, hormones, globins, membrane proteins

112
Q

Proteins are __ stored in the bodies as an energy and nutrient source; __ or __

A

NOT
use it lose it

113
Q

Carbohydrates are __ essential but still __ of energy

A

not
full

114
Q

In vertebrae, most digestion takes place in the __ which includes the __

A

foregut
stomach

115
Q

What are the major digestive proteins in the foregut?

A

pepsins

116
Q

Pepsins make?

A

pepsinogens

117
Q

__ molecules require __ to pass through cell membranes

A

polar; transporters

118
Q

What are an example of polar molecules?

A

monosaccharides, amino acids, and water soluble vitamins

119
Q

Some species harbor communities of __ __ and are able to digest __ and other molecules that animals cannot

A

fermenting microbes
cellulose

120
Q

What are the three steps of foregut fermenters?

A
  1. digestion of cellulose
  2. synthesis B vitamins and essential amino acids
  3. uptake of nitrogen
121
Q

What is indigestible ?

A

cellulose

122
Q

B vitamins and essential amino acids can be absorbed in the?

A

midgut

123
Q

Hindgut fermenters can’t obtain nutrients so they?

A

eat their feces

124
Q

Fat soluble molecules is predominately mediated by __ diffusion because fats can readily pass __ __ cell membranes

A

simple
non-polar

125
Q

lipid soluble molecules require __ to escort them throughout the body

A

lipoproteins

126
Q

LDL is __ cholesterol and HDL is __ cholesterol

A

bad; good

Physiology (4 decks)

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