Exam two (Chapter 3, 5, 7, 8, 14) Flashcards
alarm reaction
first stage of the general adaptation syndrome; characterized as the body’s immediate physiological reaction to a threatening situation or some other emergency; analogous to the fight-or-flight response.
beliefs
tenets or convictions that people hold to be true
cortisol
stress hormone released by the adrenal glands when encountering a stressor; helps to provide a
boost of energy, thereby preparing the individual to take action
countercultures
groups that reject and oppose society’s widely accepted cultural patterns
culture
shared beliefs, values, and practices
culture lag
the gap of time between the introduction of material culture and nonmaterial culture’s
acceptance of it
diffusion
the spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to another
discoveries
things and ideas found from what already exists
distress
bad form of stress; usually high in intensity; often leads to exhaustion, fatigue, feeling burned out;
associated with erosions in performance and health
eustress
good form of stress; low to moderate in intensity; associated with positive feelings, as well as
optimal health and performance
fight-or-flight response
set of physiological reactions (increases in blood pressure, heart rate, respiration
rate, and sweat) that occur when an individual encounters a perceived threat; these reactions are
produced by activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system
folkways
direct, appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture
formal norms
established, written rules
general adaptation syndrome
Hans Selye’s three-stage model of the body’s physiological reactions to stress
and the process of stress adaptation: alarm reaction, stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion
globalization
the integration of international trade and finance markets
health psychology
subfield of psychology devoted to studying psychological influences on health, illness,
and how people respond when they become ill
high culture
the cultural patterns of a society’s elite
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
set of structures found in both the limbic system
(hypothalamus) and the endocrine system (pituitary gland and adrenal glands) that regulate many of the
body’s physiological reactions to stress through the release of hormones
ideal culture
the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to
informal norms
casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to
innovations
new objects or ideas introduced to culture for the first time
inventions
a combination of pieces of existing reality into new forms
language
a symbolic system of communication
mores
the moral views and principles of a group
norms
the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured
popular culture
mainstream, widespread patterns among a society’s population
primary appraisal
judgment about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that a stressor might
entail
real culture
the way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists
sanctions
a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
the way that people understand the world based on their form of language
secondary appraisal
judgment of options available to cope with a stressor and their potential effectiveness
social control
a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms
society
people who live in a definable community and who share a culture
stage of exhaustion
third stage of the general adaptation syndrome; the body’s ability to resist stress
becomes depleted; illness, disease, and even death may occur
stage of resistance
second stage of the general adaptation syndrome; the body adapts to a stressor for a
period of time
stress
process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that one appraises as overwhelming
or threatening to one’s well-being
stressors
environmental events that may be judged as threatening or demanding; stimuli that initiate the
stress process
subcultures
groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society’s majority, even as the
members exist within a larger society
symbols
gestures or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who
share a culture
values
a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society
anticipatory socialization
the way we prepare for future life roles
degradation ceremony
the process by which new members of a total institution lose aspects of their old
identities and are given new ones
generalized other
the common behavioral expectations of general society
hidden curriculum
the informal teaching done in schools that socializes children to societal norms
moral development
the way people learn what is “good” and “bad” in society
nature
the influence of our genetic makeup on self-development
nurture
the role that our social environment plays in self-development
peer group
a group made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests
resocialization
the process by which old behaviors are removed and new behaviors are learned in their
place
self
a person’s distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction
socialization
the process wherein people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept
society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values
conflict theory
a theory that examines social and economic factors as the causes of criminal deviance
control theory
a theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that
deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society
corporate crime
crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment
corrections system
the system tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested for, convicted
of, or sentenced for criminal offenses
court
a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law
crime
a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions
criminal justice system
an organization that exists to enforce a legal code
cultural deviance theory
a theory that suggests conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class
society causes crime
deviance
a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms
differential association theory
a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to
them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance
formal sanctions
sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced
hate crimes
attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics
informal sanctions
sanctions that occur in face-to-face interactions
labeling theory
the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society
legal codes
codes that maintain formal social control through laws
master status
a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual
negative sanctions
punishments for violating norms
nonviolent crimes
crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat
of force
police
a civil force in charge of regulating laws and public order at a federal, state, or community level
positive sanctions
rewards given for conforming to norms
power elite
a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and
resources
primary deviance
a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s selfimage
or interactions with others
sanctions
the means of enforcing rules
secondary deviance
deviance that occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to change after
his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society
self-report study
a collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires
or telephone interviews
social control
the regulation and enforcement of norms
social disorganization theory
a theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and
the absence of social control
social order
arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives
strain theory
a theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having
socially acceptable means to reach those goals
street crime
crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public
spaces
victimless crime
activities against the law, but that do not result in injury to any individual other than the
person who engages in them
violent crimes
crimes based on the use of force or the threat of force
cyberfeminism
the application to and promotion of feminism online
design patents
patents that are granted when someone has invented a new and original design for a
manufactured product
digital divide
the uneven access to technology around race, class, and geographic lines
e-readiness
the ability to sort through, interpret, and process digital knowledge
evolutionary model of technological change
a breakthrough in one form of technology that leads to a
number of variations, from which a prototype emerges, followed by a period of slight adjustments to the
technology, interrupted by a breakthrough
gatekeeping
the sorting process by which thousands of possible messages are shaped into a mass mediaappropriate
form and reduced to a manageable amount
knowledge gap
the gap in information that builds as groups grow up without access to technology
media
all print, digital, and electronic means of communication
media consolidation
a process by which fewer and fewer owners control the majority of media outlets
media globalization
e worldwide integration of media through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas
neo-Luddites
those who see technology as a symbol of the coldness of modern life
net neutrality
the principle that all Internet data should be treated equally by internet service providers
new media
all interactive forms of information exchange
oligopoly
a situation in which a few firms dominate a marketplace
panoptic surveillance
a form of constant monitoring in which the observation posts are decentralized and
the observed is never communicated with directly
planned obsolescence
the act of a technology company planning for a product to be obsolete or unable
from the time it’s created
plant patents
patents that recognize the discovery of new plant types that can be asexually reproduced
technological diffusion
the spread of technology across borders
technological globalization
the cross-cultural development and exchange of technology
technology
the application of science to solve problems in daily life
technophiles
those who see technology as symbolizing the potential for a brighter future
utility patents
patents that are granted for the invention or discovery of any new and useful process,
product, or machine
ambilineal
a type of unilateral descent that follows either the father’s or the mother’s side exclusively
bigamy
the act of entering into marriage while still married to another person
bilateral descent
the tracing of kinship through both parents’ ancestral lines
cohabitation
the act of a couple sharing a residence while they are not married
extended family
a household that includes at least one parent and child as well as other relatives like
grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins
family
socially recognized groups of individuals who may be joined by blood, marriage, or adoption and
who form an emotional connection and an economic unit of society
family life course
a sociological model of family that sees the progression of events as fluid rather than as
occurring in strict stages
family life cycle
a set of predictable steps and patterns families experience over time
family of orientation
the family into which one is born
family of procreation
a family that is formed through marriage
intimate partner violence (IPV)
violence that occurs between individuals who maintain a romantic or
sexual relationship
kinship
a person’s traceable ancestry (by blood, marriage, and/or adoption)
marriage
a legally recognized contract between two or more people in a sexual relationship who have an
expectation of permanence about their relationship
matrilineal descent
a type of unilateral descent that follows the mother’s side only
matrilocal residence
a system in which it is customary for a husband to live with the his wife’s family
monogamy
the act of being married to only one person at a time
nuclear family
two parents (traditionally a married husband and wife) and children living in the same
household
patrilineal descent
a type of unilateral descent that follows the father’s line only
patrilocal residence
a system in which it is customary for the a wife to live with (or near) the her husband’s
family
polyandry
a form of marriage in which one woman is married to more than one man at one time
polygamy
the state of being committed or married to more than one person at a time
polygyny
a form of marriage in which one man is married to more than one woman at one time
shaken-baby syndrome
a group of medical symptoms such as brain swelling and retinal hemorrhage
resulting from forcefully shaking or impacting an infant’s head
unilateral descent
the tracing of kinship through one parent only.
