Exam Revision Units 1 & 2 Flashcards
What is Absolute thresholds
The minimum amount of stimulus energy needed for an observer to perceive a stimulus.
What are the 6 stages of sensation and perception in vision
Reception - light enters the eye through the cornea and is focused on the retina by the lens.
Transduction- light energy is transformed into nerve impulses
Transmission- the information is sent to the brain via the optic nerve
Selection- you pay attention to certain stimuli and block out the rest. The image received from your eyes is now broken up
Organization- You brain organizes the information so you are able to make sense of it
Interpretation- where the visuals you see are made sense of.
What are the 6 stages of sensation in taste
Reception - chemicals are dissolved in saliva whilst chewing
Transduction - Chemical energy is transferred by receptor cells on the taste buds to nerve impulses
Transmission - nerve impulses travel through the thalamus to the brain
Perception - brain recognises the sensation of a mixture of the 5 primary tastes combined with the smell, colour and texture of the food.
Reception and light energy; visible light spectrum
For our eyes to be able to interpret visual stimulus the light energy must be within the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelengths between 360 and 760 nanometres form the visible spectrum.
What are the 5 senses of taste
salty, sweet, sour, bitter, umami (savoury)
What do perceptual constancies do
Enable us to maintain a stable perception of a stimulus, although the image on the retina may change
What is size constancy
When you maintain a constant perception of an object’s size even though the size of the image on the retina alters as the object moves easter or further from us.
What is shape constancy
When an object is perceived to maintain its known shape despite the changing perspective from which it is observed (angle the object is observed from)
What are the gestalt principals
figure ground organisation, camouflage, closure, similarity, proximity.
What is figure ground organisation
where an image is focused on fom it’s surroundings, it speerates a figure and the ground by an imaginary contour line.
What is Camouflage
Where the figure and the ground will blend making it difficult to see the figure.
What is Closure
Where we perceive an object as being whole, despite it actually being incomplete.
What is Similarity
Where individual parts of a pattern are familiar (size, colour ect) so you group them together.
What is Proximity
When individual parts of a stimulus pattern are close to each other so you group them together.
What is depth perception
The ability to judge 3D space and distance using cues in the environment.
How many eyes is binocular
2
How many eyes is monocular
1
What are the binocular depth cues
convergence, Retinal disparity
What are the monocular depth cues
Accommodation
What is convergence
as an object comes close to us our eyes will turn inwards to keep the object centered on the retina.
What is retinal disparity
Where each eye receives slightly different images so the brain fuses the two images together.
What is accomodation
Where the lens of the eye changes shape so it is able to focus light rays onto the retina.
What are the pictorial depth cues
linear perspective, Interposition, texture gradient, relative size, height in the visual field
What is linear perspective
Where two parallel lines are made to converge as they extend.
What is interposition
overlapping
What is texture gradient
less detail = further away, more detail = closer
What is relative size
where the largest image is perceived as closer and the smaller image is further away.
What is height in the visual feild
Where objects further away are closer to the horizon than an object closer.
the effect of psychological factors on perceptual set
expectation can be created by past experiences , the environment, our motivation or emotional state can all combine to predispose us to perceive the world in a certain way.
perceptual set
> how we interpret things
> only attend to certain features
factors influencing perceptual set
previous experience, context, motivation, emotion
What is pervious experience
The same stimulus can be interpreted differently based on their own past experience especially if that past experience held a significant personal meaning
What is context
refers the the environment in which a stimulus is observed
What is motivation
often we see what we want to see eg. if you need fuel you may see a food ahead sign as a fuel ahead sign instead.
What is emotion
often we can incorporate someone’s facial expressions differently depending on how you feel yourself.
What are the biological factors influencing taste and vision
genetics, age.
Explain how age influences taste and vision
newborn babies are programmed to like sweeter foods whereas as you age and mature you develop a tolerance and prefer more bitter tastes.
Explain how genetics influences taste and vision
some tastes are genetically determined for example coriander.
psychological factors influencing taste and vision
Packaging and branding, social factors, culture
Explain how packaging and branding influences taste and vision
The way food is packaged ro branded has a huge impact on how we perceive taste.
Explain how culture influences taste and vision
mostly culture comes into what you like to eat because of the environment and how you were brought up.
What are the 3 illusions
Ponzo illusion, Muller-lyer illusion, Ames room
What is the Ponzo illusion
Where the upper horizontal line in each diagram is perceived to be longer than the lower horizontal line.
What is the Muller-Lyer illusion
consists of two lines of equal length, each having an opposite shaped pattern on both ends. One of the lines has regular arrowheads; the other having inverted arrow heads (feather-tails) The line with the inverted arrowheads is perceived to be a longer line than the arrow-head line.
What is the Ames room
Shows that we maintain shape constancy at the expense of size constancy. The ames room is shaped in a trapezoidal shape but appears to be square through a peephole
What is perceptual set
Our expectations can influence the way we perceive different flavours.
What is colour intensity
is our prediction of the type of flavour we will experience.
What is texture in taste
The way food and drink feels in our mouth also plays an important role in the perception of flavour, also can be impacted by our expectations that we have learnt from experiences.
What is synasthesia
Synesthesia is a connection between the senses. It is a cross modal experience and one stimulus from one type of sensory system triggers a perception in a secondary system or cognitive process, eg. seeing a colour in response to the sound of a certain word. (one stimulus trigger another.)
What is forming impressions of others
When we socialise and communicate with other people we are always forming opinions of others. This process is known as person perception.
What is person perception
The process of forming opinions about others mainly influenced by physical appearance. Things such as body language, gender, age, ethnicity, clothing, clute as well as how they move and speak all influence person perception and your first opinion on someone.
What are attributions
inferences we make about the cause of events, the behaviour of others or your own behaviour. They can be internal or external.
What are stereotypes
Are a generalized and simplified belief about a group of people most common are: age, gender, ethic and occupational.
What are the function of stereotypes
help organise our knowledge of people quickly when we meet new people. Although stereotypes tend to be incorrect.
What are attitudes
an attitude is a positive or negative evaluation of an attitude object.
What are the expression of attitudes
implicit attitudes and explicit attitudes.
What are implicit attitudes
are involuntary, uncontrollable and sometimes unconscious. Individuals are unaware that they hold a particular attitude until it is revealed.
What are explicit attitudes
where people openly state their attitude and behave in a way that reflects this attitude.
What are the function of attitudes
attitudes help us by
> guide us, help us get what we want, avoid what we don’t want, save energy, guide interpretations, help stand up for values, help reflect on our values, protect our self-esteem.
What is the relationship between attitudes and behaviour
It is not always the case that a person’s behaviour is going to reflect their attitude. There are multiple reasons for this including: attitude silence, attitude specificity, information about the attitude, the situation and how the attitude is measured.
Attitude specify
highly specific attitudes are characterized by particular behaviours.
> information about the attitude - attitudes
What is the structure of attitude (the tri-component)
A - Affective ~ how you feel about the situation.
B - Behavioural ~ how you act in response.
C - Cognitive ~ what you know about the situation.
What is prejudice
a negative attitude towards a group of people, based on incorrect information.
What is discrimination
the action that is expresses the attitude of prejudice.
Relationship between prejudice and discrimination
the tri component, prejudice - is another example of an attitude but obviously negative
Effects of prejudice and discrimination
Physical, psychological and social disadvantages such as low self-esteem, limited ambition, self-fulfilling prophecy, violence and genocide.
What are the 5 mays to reduce prejudice
education, direct experience, intergroup contact, cognitive intervention, setting superordinate goals.
What is education
education younger generations
What is intergroup contact
direct contact between the two groups that have a prejudice towards each other. Although the following must be sustained. held over a period of time, groups must cooperate, both groups must share equal status.
What is setting superordinate goals
getting two conflicting groups to work together on a common goal they both need to want to solve.
What is cognitive intervention
Giving people more information about the group they may have held a prejudice against and providing time for this information to be understood
What is direct experience
of another culture or lifestyle. This can lead to a richer appreciation of the culture or ethnic group which a prejudice may be held against.
What is a group
two or more people who interact with each other.
What are the sources of power
reward, coercive, information, legitimate, expert, referent.
What is reward power
the ability to provide a desired response
What is coercive power
the ability to provide an unpleasant response
What is information power
Having knowledge others desire
What is legitimate power
Power is given by a higher authority and may be due to role or position
What is expert power
power is due to skills and depth of knowledge
What is referent power
power from others’ desire to relate to the person.
What are the styles of leadership
democratic, authoritarian, laissez-faire
What is democratic leadership
the leader negotiates with the group and takes their views into account when making decisions.
What is authoritarian leadership
leader makes all decisions with no negotiation / agreement and controls behaviour of all members of the group.
What is laissez-faire
‘leader’ is present but takes no part in the group dynamics or decision making. There is no real structure or authority.
What are characteristics of helping behaviour
Helping behaviour is behaviour that benefits others and society in general. eg. Charity work, voluntary, Rescuing.
What is bystander intervention
The bystander intervention is when a person will voluntarily help another person.
What is the bystander effect
The bystander effect is where a person is more likely to help others when they are alone rather than when they are in a group of people or others are around them.
The decision model of helping
is help needed ^ is it an emergency ^ take responsibility ^ how to help ^ take action ^ help is given
If any of these are not done then no help is given
What is social norm
A social norm is a form of action or behaviour that is standardised and expected in society.
What is reciprocity
do unto others as they do unto you.
What is social responsibility
members of society are expected to help others in times of need.
What are the personal characteristics of a helper
mood, empathy, competence, alturism
What is mood (personal characteristics)
Your mood will influence whether or not you help someone.
What is empathy (personal characteristics)
someone’s emotional response to another person’s distress.
What is competence (personal characteristics)
The way bystanders perceive their competence to deal with an emergency.
What is alturism (personal characteristics)
a type of helping behaviour where no reward is expected. - may come at a personal cost -is automatic or deliberate.
What is bullying
A form of aggressive behaviour that is repeated and intentional causing another person injury or discomfort.
effects of bullying
anxiety, stress, loneliness, depression, panic-attacks, low self-esteem or suicide.
What is advertising
advertising is directed at you and fosters artificially created ‘needs’ to have the latest, best, most desirable consumer item on the market.
What is consumerism
encourages the purchase of goods for the sake of wanting rather than needing them.
What is media
the mainstream form of communication in society. Where we get our information and connect with the outside world on a global scale.
Positive affects of the media
cultural and political awareness, access to jobs, online shopping, educational sites
Negative affects of the media
distraction, privacy risk, negative health consequences, misinformation.
What are positive affects of video games
education, empathy, improves mood
What are negative affects of video games
aggressive behaviour, decreases positive social behaviours, addiction.
What is an IV
An IV is what’s being manipulated or varied in the experiment purposely.
What is a DV
the variable that is being measured in the experiment.
What is an EV
a variable other than the IV that can cause change in the DV
What is random sampling
A procedure where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
What is a sample
When a smaller group is selected from the population to be participants in an experiment to represent the population.
What is population
A group which experimenters wish to draw conclusions from.
What are repeated measures
Where each participant is apart of both groups
What are matched participants
group based on a common variable
What are independent groups
each participant is allocated to a group at random
What is quantitive date
refers to descriptions of the characters of what is being studied. eg, emotional state.
What is qualitative data
refers to measurements (numerical information)
What are data collection techniques
Observation, interview, questionnaires, psychological tests (personality or IQ tests), technology in data collection, cross-sectional studies or longitudinal studies.
3 ethics involved in the 3 experiments
withdrawal rights, deception, no harm principal
What are The ethics involved in these 3 experiments
withdrawal rights, deception, no harm principal
What are The 7 moderator variables in Smith and Bond’s meta-analysis on conformity
normative influence, culture, informational influence, group size, unanimity, deindividuation, social loafing
What is normative influence
going along with the rest of the group to fit in and gain approval.
What is culture
A cultural difference where it is normalised that people individually make their own conclusions or it is more favoured in a group
What is informational influence
Is where you believe that another person / groups opinion is correct because they are more capable of accurate judgement.
What is group size
People are most likely to confirm an incorrect answer because the other members in the group thave said so. This is most common in a group of 4-9 people
What is unanimity
If one of the confederates did not conform with the group, but gave the correct answer, conformity rates would drop.
What is deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-resistance occurring in group situations.
What is social loafing
When someone allows others to do more work
What is random sampling?
A procedure where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
What is stratified sampling
putting participants into groups ( like gender or age) and then choosing from each group for equal representation.
What is convenience sampling
choosing participants that are nearby and easy to access(convenient)
What are control and experimental groups
In an experiment, the control group is what the experimental group is compared to
