Exam prep Flashcards
Hypothesis
A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation
Replicate
make an exact copy of; reproduce
Survey
Study in which a group of participants is selected from a population and data about or opinions from those participants are collected, measured, and analyzed
- Information is obtained by asking individuals a fixed set of questions
- Two types include interview and questionnaire
E.G. Questionnaire provided to new parents asking questions about their parenting practices and their child’s behaviour
Pros
- Practical
- Time efficient
- Can obtain uniform results
- Questionnaire limit researcher influence
Cons
- interviews can result in misleading answers
- must ensure that questionnaires accurately examine the intended subject
- requires trust of the participant
Target Population
The population that a study is intended to research and to which generalizations from samples are to be made
Sample
A subset of a population of interest that is selected for study with the aim of making inferences to the population. It is important to ensure that a sample is representative of the larger population.
Random Sample
selecting participants without any sort of characteristics, or qualifiers as criteria. All people in the population are equally as likely to be selected
Stratified Sample
purposely selecting participants that proportionately represent subgroups found within the population (age, location, gender, religion, education)
E.G. Total
School population
Grade 9s: 600/2121 = 28%
Grade 10s: 521/2121 = 25%
Grade 11s: 603/2121 = 28%
Grade 12s: 397/2121 = 19%
Data collected
Grade 9s: 28/100 = 28%
Grade 10s: 25/100 = 25%
Grade 11s: 28/100 = 28%
Grade 12s: 19/100 = 19%
Volunteer Bias
Volunteer bias (also called self-selection bias) arises in any research study in which participants choose if they want to be part of the sample
Case study
- intensive investigation of one or more participants (person, group, community)
- a combination of methods is used including: long term observation, diaries etc
E.G. Jeremy has a fear, psychologist has him keep a diary of his experiences, and collects a detailed account of his childhood
Pros - can gather a full history of a person
- serves as the basis for new hypothesis that could be tested in controlled situations
Cons
- cannot be used to make conclusions on its own
- results are individual and cannot be generalized
Longitudinal Method
- Data collected about a group of participants over a long period of time, at regular intervals
- Used to determine the progression or development of various characteristics
E.G. Psychologist studying whether personality is fairly stable or unstable examines the same group of children from age 1-25
Pros
- Good format to study consistencies and inconsistencies in behaviour
Cons
- Time consuming
- Expensive
- May lose track of participants which can affect results
Cross-sectional Method
Participants organized into groups based on age, and studied so that age related differences can be compared
E.G. psychologist wanting to study short term memory capacity provide children ages 5, 10, 15 with a series of words and ask them to recall the list
Pros
- less expensive than longitudinal
- no risk of losing participants
- shorter time span for results
Cons
- Results could be attributed to differences other than age
Naturalistic Observation
Researcher watches and records activity of subjects in their natural environment while avoiding interference
E.G. watch monkey learn to use rock
Pros
- Learns naturally thru watching
Cons
- Researcher’s presence could taint results
Correlation
- Mutual relationship or connection between two or more things.
- Just because there is a relationship between 2 things does not mean one thing CAUSES another to happen.
Positive correlation
On a graph, the line is going up(left to right)
In text, both factors increase or decrease.
E.G.
- As number of cats go up, happiness increases
- As number of legs goes down, ability to walk goes down
Negative correlation
On a graph, the line is going down (left to right)
In text, as one factor increases (free time) another factor decreases (stress)
Experiment
- utilizes the scientific method to investigate a question and test a hypothesis
- the hypothesis outlines the variables (conditions, behaviours subject to change)
E.G. The ability for students to concentrate as the temperature increases
Pros
- High control over the situation
- Decrease interference from outside variables
Cons
- research questions require additional experiments in order for results to be replicated before conclusions/theories can be accepted
- can be difficult to limit the influence of hidden flaws
- can be difficult to decide on the best independent/dependent variables to answer a question
Control variable
All other factors that are kept the same
Independent variable
The condition that the experimenter changes
Dependent variable
Condition that varies as a function of the independent variable (dependent on the independent)
Experimental group
Group of participants in a research study who are exposed to a particular manipulation of the independent variable
Control group
Not assigned any manipulatable conditions
Controlled experiment
A controlled experiment is an experiment in which all the variable factors in an experimental group and a comparison control group are kept the same, except for one variable factor in the experimental group that is changed
Placebo
refers to a treatment that appears real, but is designed to have no physical benefit but can alter brain thinking. A placebo can be a sugar pill, a water or salt water (saline) injection or even a fake surgical procedure
Single-blind study
the researcher is aware of who has the placebo
Double-blind study
the researcher is unaware of who has the placebo
Ethics
- Protecting the welfare and confidentiality of all participants
- Obey provincial and federal laws
- Participants must agree to be a part of the study (give their consent)
- Deception should only be used if no alternative is possible (debriefing must occur after the deception)
- Information or outcomes of the study must be made available to participants
Informed consent
The participant is aware of the experiment, what occurs, what will happen, and are allowed to back out at anytime
Critical Period
Idea that children can not learn language after puberty
Nature vs. Nurture
APGAR score
A quick test performed on a baby at 1 and 5 minutes after birth
- 1-minute score determines how well the baby tolerated the birthing process
- 5-minute score tells the health care provider how well the baby is doing outside the mother’s womb.
Breathing effort:
- If the infant is not breathing, the respiratory score is 0.
- If the respirations are slow or irregular, the infant scores 1 for respiratory effort.
- If the infant cries well, the respiratory score is 2.
Heart rate is evaluated by stethoscope:
- If there is no heartbeat, the infant scores 0 for heart rate.
- If heart rate is less than 100 beats per minute, the infant scores 1 for heart rate.
- If heart rate is greater than 100 beats per minute, the infant scores 2 for heart rate.
Muscle tone:
- If muscles are loose and floppy, the infant scores 0 for muscle tone.
- If there is some muscle tone, the infant scores 1.
- If there is active motion, the infant scores 2 for muscle tone.
Grimace response or reflex irritability, such as a mild pinch:
- If there is no reaction, the infant scores 0 for reflex irritability.
- If there is grimacing, the infant scores 1 for reflex irritability.
- If there is grimacing and a cough, sneeze, or vigorous cry, the infant scores 2 for reflex irritability.
Skin color:
- If the skin color is pale blue, the infant scores 0 for color.
- If the body is pink and the extremities are blue, the infant scores 1 for color.
- If the entire body is pink, the infant scores 2 for color.
Baby reflexes
- Rooting: When the corner of a babys mouth is stroked they will turn their head and open their mouth.
- Suck: When the roof of the baby’s mouth is touched, the baby will begin to suck.
- Grasping
- Moro: In response to sound, the baby throws back his or her head, extends out his or her arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in.
Parentese
High pitched way of speaking to a baby. Can help promote language development.
Telegraphic Speech
Concise message characterized by the use of three-word short phrases or sentences made up of main content words - 11 to 12 Months
Psychosexual Development
- personality develops through a series of childhood stages
- pleasure seeking energies of kid becomes focused on certain erogenous areas
- Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of 5
- If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality
- If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur
Stages:
Oral: 0-1 yr
Anal: 1-3 yr - Anus and bladder, potty training
Phallic: 3-6 yr - Genitals, Oedipus complex, Electra complex
Latent: 6-12 yr - Energy directed to physical and intellectual activities, sexual impulses repressed, relationships between peers of same sex
Genital: 12+ - Energy directed to full sexual maturation and function and development of secondary sex characteristics
Superego, ego, id
According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the id is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories, the super-ego operates as a moral conscience, and the ego is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego
Fixation
According to Freud, If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, stage fixations can occur
Erogenous zones
Erogenous zones are parts of the body that excite sexual feelings when touched or stimulated
Cognitive development
Piaget theory of development
Sensorimotor: 0 - 2
Object permanence, discover relationship between body and environment
Preoperational: 2 - 7
Egocentrism, symbolic thought, role play and pretend
Concrete Operational: 7 - 11
Conservation, development of logical thought
Formal Operational: 11 +
Abstract thinking (manipulate concepts in head)
Assimilation
Assimilation describes how we interpret new experiences in terms of our current understanding, so in terms of our current schemas
- When a child learns the word for dog, they start to call all four-legged animals dogs
Accommodation
term developed by psychologist Jean Piaget to describe what occurs when new information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas. Rather than make the new information fit into an existing schema, you change the schema in order to accommodate the new information.
Psychosocial development
- Theory that there is a crisis at each stage of life
0 - 1: Basic trust vs. mistrust
Fix: Hope
Result: Appreciation of interdependence
1 - 3: Autonomy vs. shame
Fix: Will
Result: Acceptance of the cycle of life
3 - 6: Initiative vs. guilt
Fix: Purpose
Result: Humour, empathy, resilience
6 - 12: Industry vs. inferiority
Fix: Competence
Result: Humility, acceptance of the course of life
12 - 19: Identity vs. confusion
Fix: Fidelity
Result: Sense of complexity of life
20 - 25: Intimacy vs. isolation
Fix: Love
Result: Sense of complexity of relationships
26 - 64: Generativity vs. stagnation
Fix: Care
Result: Caring for others, empathy and concern
65 +: Integrity vs. despair
Fix: Wisdom
Result: Existential identity, sense of integrity
Epigenetic Principle
Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order and build upon each previous stage
Moral development
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished they must have done wrong.
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.
Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers are related to the approval of others.
Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society so judgments concern obeying rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals.
Stage 6: Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. E.g. human rights, justice and equality.
Attachment styles
Some babies could form more secure attachments than others, according to the caregiver’s sensitivity to the infant’s signals
- Securely attached infants: move freely away from mother, ‘checking in’ now & then. Doesn’t mind being picked up by others
- Insecurely attached infants: avoid mother, feel indifferent toward mother, fear strangers, upset by minor, everyday separations
Two types of insecure attachment styles
Anxious Ambivalent:
- Anxious to explore or interact with strangers even when caregiver is present
- Child is extremely distressed when caregiver departs
- Child ambivalent when caregiver returns
- Child will remain close to caregiver but acts resistant and resentful
Anxious Avoidant:
- Ignores caregiver and does not display emotion when caregiver leaves or returns
- Child does not explore, regardless of who is present
- Strangers are treated similarly to caregiver
- Very little display of emotion occurs
Imprinting
inherited tendency of some newborn animals to follow the first moving object they see.
Stranger anxiety
Appears at 6-12 months
Parenting styles
- Permissive parenting
- Authoritarian
- Authoritative
- Uninvolved
Uninvolved parenting
Parents are undemanding and unresponsive
- Parents’ main focus is not on children
- In extreme cases, this parenting style may encompass both rejecting-neglecting and neglectful parents
Effects on children:
- Increased risk of depression / mental health problems.
- more impulsive and less self-control.
- increased tendency for self-isolation.
- difficulty forming lasting bonds.
Authoritative parenting
Parents are demanding and emotionally responsive
- Monitor and impart clear standards for their children’s conduct
- Disciplinary methods are supportive, rather than punitive i.e: they will explain reasons for consequences
- Goals to raise children to be assertive, socially responsible, self-regulated and cooperative
Effects on children:
- Happy disposition
- Self-confident, follow through to master tasks
- Developed emotion regulation
- Developed social skills
- Less rigid about gender stereotypes (sensitivity in boys and independence in girls)
Authoritarian parenting
Parents are demanding emotinally unresponsive
- Obedience-oriented and expect orders to be obeyed without explanation
- These parents provide well-ordered and structured environments with clearly stated rules.
Effects on children:
- Anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy disposition
- Poor reactions to frustration (girls are particularly likely to give up and boys become especially hostile)
- Do well in school (High performing anxiety)
- Not likely to engage in antisocial activities such as drug and alcohol abuse, vandalism, gangs
Permissive parenting
Parents are undemanding and emotionally responsive (Also referred to as ‘laissez-faire’ or ‘indulgent’)
- Set few rules or expectations regarding behaviour
- Allow considerable self-regulation and avoid confrontation
- Children tend to have final say
Effects on children:
- Poor emotion regulation (under regulated)
- Rebellious and defiant when desires are challenged.
- Low persistence to challenging tasks
- Anti-social behaviours
Refusenik
Give children time to play, develop a sense of self, listen to experts, and aim to aid their child into becoming fully functioning.
(The name refers to “refuse”ing to hyper-parent)
- Children end up normal, healthy, and well rounded
Hyperparenting
Hyper-parenting is overscheduling and being over-involved in your child’s life and schedule, hoping to turn them into geniuses
Kids end up
- Anxiety
- Stress
- Over-obedient
- Lack independence and freethinking
- May not be able to develop talents or potential
Synapse, dendrite, exuberant period, pruning
Male puberty
Begins at 9-16 years
Female puberty
Begins at 8-10 years. Female puberty onset is linked to weight, so the heavier she is the earlier the onset.
Sexual maturation
Means the body is preparing itself/ready to make babies
Endocrine system
The endocrine system consists of: Glands located throughout the body; Hormones made by the glands and released into the bloodstream or the fluid surrounding cells; and. Receptors in various organs and tissues that recognize and respond to the hormones
Target hormones
Hormones that affect specific cells in the body (e.g. Gastrin stimulates stomach cells)
Nontarget hormones
Hormones that have broad effects on the body (e.g. Growth hormone - Affects the growth of long bones)
Hormones
One of many substances made by glands. They circulate in the bloodstream and control the actions of certain cells and organs. Also known as chemical messengers
