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BIO 353: Advanced Human Physiology > Exam I Study > Flashcards

Exam I Study Flashcards

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1
Q

Define homeostasis.

A

Mammals tolerate changes in external environment by stabilizing their internal environment. All organ systems use membrane transport using as little energy as possible to maintain homeostasis.

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2
Q

What is compartmentalization?

A

Most cells don’t contact external environment

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3
Q

The body has 3 fluid compartments. What are they?

A

Intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid and plasma/interstitial fluid

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4
Q

What 2 types of membranes create compartments?

A
  1. Tissues that line cavities or separate two compartments (mucous membranes, pleural membrane)
  2. Phospholipid-protein boundary layers
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5
Q

What are the functions of cell membranes?

A
  1. Create a physical barrier to separate intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid
  2. Regulate exchange of materials between cell and the environment
  3. Communicate with the external environment
  4. Provide structural support to cell and tissues
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6
Q

What is diffusion?

A

Movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is reached. No energy is needed.

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7
Q

What is the rate of diffusion determined by?

A

Temperature, size, steepness of concentration gradient, distance

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8
Q

What are the two types of physiologic signals?

A

electrical signals and chemical signals

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9
Q

What are electrical signals?

A

Changes in the membrane potential of a cell (neurons)

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10
Q

What are chemical signals?

A

Secreted by cells into the ECF (responsible for most communication within the body)

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11
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Chemicals secreted by neurons that diffuse across a small gap to the target cell and have a rapid effect

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12
Q

What are neuromodulators?

A

A messenger released from a neuron in the CNS or PNS - much slower than neurotransmitter

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13
Q

What are neurohormones?

A

Chemicals released by neurons into the blood for action at distant targets

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14
Q

What are cytokines?

A

Common Communication molecules

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15
Q

What do cytokines do?

A

May act as both local and long-distance signals and can control cell development, cell differentiation and the immune response

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16
Q

Where are receptors located?

A

Located inside the cell or on the cell membrane

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17
Q

What is signal amplification?

A

Turns on signal molecule into multiple second messenger molecules - used in endocrine system to minimize amount of circulating hormone needed to cause response

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18
Q

How can a signal pathway be terminated?

A
  1. Ligand can be degraded by enzymes
  2. Removal of the signal molecule form the extracellular fluid
  3. Endocytosis of the receptor-ligand complex
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19
Q

What is negative feedback?

A

The response counteracts the stimulus, shutting off the response loop

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20
Q

What is positive feedback?

A

The response reinforces the stimulus, sending the variable farther from the set point

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21
Q

What is tonic control?

A

Moderate activity can be varied up or down (vasodilation/vasconstriction)

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22
Q

What does the endocrine system do?

A

Maintain homeostatic environment throught he use of hormones (signaling molecules)

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23
Q

What are the three integrating centers?

A
  1. Hypothalamic stimulation (from CNS)
  2. Anterior pituitary stimulation (from hypothalamic trophic hormones)
  3. Endocrine gland stimulation (from anterior pituitary trophic hormones - except prolactin)
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24
Q

What do hormones do?

A

Allow cell-to-cell communication and are transported by blood. They activate a physiological response at low concentrations.

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25
Q

What affects the concentration of hormones in the blood?

A
  1. The rate of production
  2. The rate of delivery
  3. The rate of degradation and/or excretion
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26
Q

What is synergism?

A

A combined effect which is greater than the sum of individual effects

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27
Q

What is permissiveness?

A

A second hormone is needed in order to get the full effect

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28
Q

What is antagonism?

A

When two hormones oppose the effects of another

glucagon vs. insulin

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29
Q

What is hypersecretion?

A

Excess hormone (caused by tumors or exogenous treatment)

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30
Q

What is hyposecretion?

A

Deficient hormones (caused by decreased synthesis of materials or atrophy)

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31
Q

What are peptide hormones?

A

They are water soluble, have short-half life, are large (can’t fit through membrane) and have a second messenger mechanism of action

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32
Q

What is a cholesterol-derived (steroid) hormone?

A

Lipophilic and easily crosses membranes - such as cortisol

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33
Q

What is a receptor-inside cell?

A

Changes gene activity, hormones have slower response, and longer duration

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34
Q

What does the posterior pituitary secrete? Is it neural or endocrine tissue?

A

Secretes hormones directly - antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or oxytocin

Neural tissue

35
Q

What does antidiuretic hormone (ADH) do?

A

Helps to avoid dehydration by reducing urine output

36
Q

How does ADH work?

A
  1. Osmoreceptors monitor the solute concentration of blood

2. With high solutes, ADH preserves water. With low solutes, ADH is not released, thus causing H2O loss

37
Q

What is oxytocin (OT)?

A

A hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland that targets the smooth muscles of the uterus/mammary glands

38
Q

What does the anterior pituitary gland do? Is it neural or endocrine tissue?

A

Secretes hormones that control hormone release

Endocrine tissue

39
Q

How does the anterior pitutiary gland secrete hormones?

A
  1. Hypothalamus sends a chemical stimulus to the anterior pituitary
  2. Releasing hormones stimulate the synthesis and release hormones
  3. Inhibiting hormones shut off the synthesis and release of hormones
40
Q

How is growth hormone produced?

A

Produced by somatotropic cells that target bone and skeletal muscle

41
Q

What does growth hormone do?

A

Promotes protein synthesis and encourages the use of fats for fuel

42
Q

How is GH regulated?

A

Regulated by antagonistic hypothalamic hormones.

43
Q

What hormone stimulates the release of GH?

A

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

44
Q

What hormone inhibits the release of GH?

A

Growth-hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)

45
Q

What happens with a decrease GH during early childhood development?

A

Pituitary dwarfism

46
Q

What happens with an increase of GH as a child?

A

Giganticism

47
Q

What happens with a continous release of GH as an adult?

A

Acromegaly

48
Q

What are the thyroid hormones?

A

Triiodothyronine (T3)

Thyroxine (T4)

49
Q

What do thyroid hormones do?

A

Act on nearly every cell in the body to increase basal metabolic rate, protein synthesis and growth

50
Q

What part of the body release Thryoid releasing hormone (TRH)? What part of the body release Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?

A

Hypothalamus releases TRH

Anterior pituitary releases TSH

51
Q

What is a disease associated with hyperthyroidism?

A

Graves disease

52
Q

What is a disease associated with hypothyroidism?

A

Cretinism

53
Q

What does the adrenal gland do?

A

SEcretes the cateocholamines both neurohormones and neurotransmitters)

54
Q

What does the adrenal cortex do?

A

Secretes over 30 different steroid hormones (corticosteroids)

55
Q

Give an example of a mineralocorticoid and what this hormone does.

A

Maintains electrolyte balance

Aldosterone

56
Q

Give an example of glucocorticoid and what this hormone does.

A

Cortisol

Stimulates metabolism and blood glucose, suppresses immune system

57
Q

Give examples of gonadocorticoids

A

Testosterone, estrogen, progesterone

58
Q

What happens when there are excessive levels of glucocorticoids over time?

A

It depresses cartilage and bone formation, as well as negatively impacts the immune system.

59
Q

What happens after a stress response?

A

There is a drop in cortisol levels, a decrease in blood glucose - sometimes illness can follow

60
Q

What can affect cortisol release?

A

Circadium rhythm

61
Q

Describe the adrenal cortex feedback.

A
  1. Low glucocorticoid (cortisol) levels or low blood sugar
  2. Hypothalamus is stimulate = releases corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
  3. CRH stimulates the anterior pituitary which releases the adrenocroticotropin hormone (ACTH)
  4. ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol
62
Q

What causes Addison’s disease? What are symptoms associated with it?

A

Hyposecretion of cortisol

It is an adrenal insufficiency syndrome

Darkened skin, weight loss, hypoglycemia, inability to handle stress

63
Q

What is parathyroid hormone (PTH) released by? What does it do?

A

Secreted by Chief (principal) cells and it targets osteoclast cells and kidneys

64
Q

What does prolactin do?

A

In females, it stimulate milk production by the breasts

65
Q

What triggers the release prolactin?

A

Triggered by the hypothalamic prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)

66
Q

What is prolactin inhibited by?

A

Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)

67
Q

What does follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) do?

A

Regulates the function of the ovaries and testes

68
Q

What is FSH triggered by?

A

The hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) during and after puberty

69
Q

What does Luteinizing hormone (LH) do?

A

Targets the ovaries.

Causes ovulation adn release of pregestin (progesterone), causes the release of estrogen

70
Q

Name two types of antagonistic hormones related to diabetes types I and II.

A

Insulin and glucagon

71
Q

What do astrocytes do?

A

Support and regulate ions

72
Q

What do microglial cells do?

A

Act as an immune defense against invading microorganisms

73
Q

What do ependymal cells do?

A

Produce, secrete, and circulate CSF

74
Q

What is multiple sclerosis (MS)?

A

An autoimmune attack on the CNS, causing myelin damage. Lesions disrupt nerve impulses traveling to and from the brain and spinal cord.

Accompanied with weakness, lack of coordination, impaired vision and speech
-Myelin sheaths have hardened bundles (lesions)

75
Q

What does a traumatic brain injury do?

A

Force causes damage (shearing) at cellular level - impairs cell communication

76
Q

What is an action potential?

A

A rapid reversal of a resting potential.

77
Q

What two things can lead to an action potential (AP)?

A
  1. Activation of a sensory receptor

2. Input from another neuron

78
Q

What are the phases of an action potential?

A
  1. Rising phase: rapid depolarization, Na influex
  2. Overshoot: inside is +
  3. Undershoot: rapid repolarization, K+ efflux
  4. Refractory period: no AP can occur
79
Q

True or False. Na+ channels are voltage dependent.

A

True

80
Q

What does the refractory period do (for AP)?

A

Prevents the action potential from oving backward.

81
Q

Where do the majority of excitatory synapses occur in the mammalian brain?

A

On dendritic spines

82
Q

What happens with Myasthenia gravis?

A

Antibodies block nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at junction between the nerve and muscle - prevents nerve impulses from triggering muscle contractions

83
Q

What is a resting potential?

A

A cell membrane is polarized and carries a charge. There is a difference in electrical charge inside the cell versus outside.

84
Q

What are the characteristics of an action potential?

A

Brief change in voltage from negative to positive, all or none response, all simimlar size and duration

BIO 353: Advanced Human Physiology (9 decks)

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