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BIO 353: Advanced Human Physiology > Exam I Study > Flashcards

Exam I Study Flashcards

1
Q

Define homeostasis.

A

Mammals tolerate changes in external environment by stabilizing their internal environment. All organ systems use membrane transport using as little energy as possible to maintain homeostasis.

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2
Q

What is compartmentalization?

A

Most cells don’t contact external environment

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3
Q

The body has 3 fluid compartments. What are they?

A

Intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid and plasma/interstitial fluid

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4
Q

What 2 types of membranes create compartments?

A
  1. Tissues that line cavities or separate two compartments (mucous membranes, pleural membrane)
  2. Phospholipid-protein boundary layers
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5
Q

What are the functions of cell membranes?

A
  1. Create a physical barrier to separate intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid
  2. Regulate exchange of materials between cell and the environment
  3. Communicate with the external environment
  4. Provide structural support to cell and tissues
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6
Q

What is diffusion?

A

Movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is reached. No energy is needed.

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7
Q

What is the rate of diffusion determined by?

A

Temperature, size, steepness of concentration gradient, distance

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8
Q

What are the two types of physiologic signals?

A

electrical signals and chemical signals

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9
Q

What are electrical signals?

A

Changes in the membrane potential of a cell (neurons)

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10
Q

What are chemical signals?

A

Secreted by cells into the ECF (responsible for most communication within the body)

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11
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Chemicals secreted by neurons that diffuse across a small gap to the target cell and have a rapid effect

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12
Q

What are neuromodulators?

A

A messenger released from a neuron in the CNS or PNS - much slower than neurotransmitter

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13
Q

What are neurohormones?

A

Chemicals released by neurons into the blood for action at distant targets

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14
Q

What are cytokines?

A

Common Communication molecules

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15
Q

What do cytokines do?

A

May act as both local and long-distance signals and can control cell development, cell differentiation and the immune response

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16
Q

Where are receptors located?

A

Located inside the cell or on the cell membrane

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17
Q

What is signal amplification?

A

Turns on signal molecule into multiple second messenger molecules - used in endocrine system to minimize amount of circulating hormone needed to cause response

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18
Q

How can a signal pathway be terminated?

A
  1. Ligand can be degraded by enzymes
  2. Removal of the signal molecule form the extracellular fluid
  3. Endocytosis of the receptor-ligand complex
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19
Q

What is negative feedback?

A

The response counteracts the stimulus, shutting off the response loop

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20
Q

What is positive feedback?

A

The response reinforces the stimulus, sending the variable farther from the set point

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21
Q

What is tonic control?

A

Moderate activity can be varied up or down (vasodilation/vasconstriction)

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22
Q

What does the endocrine system do?

A

Maintain homeostatic environment throught he use of hormones (signaling molecules)

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23
Q

What are the three integrating centers?

A
  1. Hypothalamic stimulation (from CNS)
  2. Anterior pituitary stimulation (from hypothalamic trophic hormones)
  3. Endocrine gland stimulation (from anterior pituitary trophic hormones - except prolactin)
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24
Q

What do hormones do?

A

Allow cell-to-cell communication and are transported by blood. They activate a physiological response at low concentrations.

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25
What affects the concentration of hormones in the blood?
1. The rate of production 2. The rate of delivery 3. The rate of degradation and/or excretion
26
What is synergism?
A combined effect which is greater than the sum of individual effects
27
What is permissiveness?
A second hormone is needed in order to get the full effect
28
What is antagonism?
When two hormones oppose the effects of another | glucagon vs. insulin
29
What is hypersecretion?
Excess hormone (caused by tumors or exogenous treatment)
30
What is hyposecretion?
Deficient hormones (caused by decreased synthesis of materials or atrophy)
31
What are peptide hormones?
They are water soluble, have short-half life, are large (can't fit through membrane) and have a second messenger mechanism of action
32
What is a cholesterol-derived (steroid) hormone?
Lipophilic and easily crosses membranes - such as cortisol
33
What is a receptor-inside cell?
Changes gene activity, hormones have slower response, and longer duration
34
What does the posterior pituitary secrete? Is it neural or endocrine tissue?
Secretes hormones directly - antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or oxytocin Neural tissue
35
What does antidiuretic hormone (ADH) do?
Helps to avoid dehydration by reducing urine output
36
How does ADH work?
1. Osmoreceptors monitor the solute concentration of blood | 2. With high solutes, ADH preserves water. With low solutes, ADH is not released, thus causing H2O loss
37
What is oxytocin (OT)?
A hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland that targets the smooth muscles of the uterus/mammary glands
38
What does the anterior pituitary gland do? Is it neural or endocrine tissue?
Secretes hormones that control hormone release Endocrine tissue
39
How does the anterior pitutiary gland secrete hormones?
1. Hypothalamus sends a chemical stimulus to the anterior pituitary 2. Releasing hormones stimulate the synthesis and release hormones 3. Inhibiting hormones shut off the synthesis and release of hormones
40
How is growth hormone produced?
Produced by somatotropic cells that target bone and skeletal muscle
41
What does growth hormone do?
Promotes protein synthesis and encourages the use of fats for fuel
42
How is GH regulated?
Regulated by antagonistic hypothalamic hormones.
43
What hormone stimulates the release of GH?
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
44
What hormone inhibits the release of GH?
Growth-hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
45
What happens with a decrease GH during early childhood development?
Pituitary dwarfism
46
What happens with an increase of GH as a child?
Giganticism
47
What happens with a continous release of GH as an adult?
Acromegaly
48
What are the thyroid hormones?
Triiodothyronine (T3) | Thyroxine (T4)
49
What do thyroid hormones do?
Act on nearly every cell in the body to increase basal metabolic rate, protein synthesis and growth
50
What part of the body release Thryoid releasing hormone (TRH)? What part of the body release Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?
Hypothalamus releases TRH Anterior pituitary releases TSH
51
What is a disease associated with hyperthyroidism?
Graves disease
52
What is a disease associated with hypothyroidism?
Cretinism
53
What does the adrenal gland do?
SEcretes the cateocholamines both neurohormones and neurotransmitters)
54
What does the adrenal cortex do?
Secretes over 30 different steroid hormones (corticosteroids)
55
Give an example of a mineralocorticoid and what this hormone does.
Maintains electrolyte balance Aldosterone
56
Give an example of glucocorticoid and what this hormone does.
Cortisol Stimulates metabolism and blood glucose, suppresses immune system
57
Give examples of gonadocorticoids
Testosterone, estrogen, progesterone
58
What happens when there are excessive levels of glucocorticoids over time?
It depresses cartilage and bone formation, as well as negatively impacts the immune system.
59
What happens after a stress response?
There is a drop in cortisol levels, a decrease in blood glucose - sometimes illness can follow
60
What can affect cortisol release?
Circadium rhythm
61
Describe the adrenal cortex feedback.
1. Low glucocorticoid (cortisol) levels or low blood sugar 2. Hypothalamus is stimulate = releases corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) 3. CRH stimulates the anterior pituitary which releases the adrenocroticotropin hormone (ACTH) 4. ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol
62
What causes Addison's disease? What are symptoms associated with it?
Hyposecretion of cortisol It is an adrenal insufficiency syndrome Darkened skin, weight loss, hypoglycemia, inability to handle stress
63
What is parathyroid hormone (PTH) released by? What does it do?
Secreted by Chief (principal) cells and it targets osteoclast cells and kidneys
64
What does prolactin do?
In females, it stimulate milk production by the breasts
65
What triggers the release prolactin?
Triggered by the hypothalamic prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)
66
What is prolactin inhibited by?
Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
67
What does follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) do?
Regulates the function of the ovaries and testes
68
What is FSH triggered by?
The hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) during and after puberty
69
What does Luteinizing hormone (LH) do?
Targets the ovaries. Causes ovulation adn release of pregestin (progesterone), causes the release of estrogen
70
Name two types of antagonistic hormones related to diabetes types I and II.
Insulin and glucagon
71
What do astrocytes do?
Support and regulate ions
72
What do microglial cells do?
Act as an immune defense against invading microorganisms
73
What do ependymal cells do?
Produce, secrete, and circulate CSF
74
What is multiple sclerosis (MS)?
An autoimmune attack on the CNS, causing myelin damage. Lesions disrupt nerve impulses traveling to and from the brain and spinal cord. Accompanied with weakness, lack of coordination, impaired vision and speech -Myelin sheaths have hardened bundles (lesions)
75
What does a traumatic brain injury do?
Force causes damage (shearing) at cellular level - impairs cell communication
76
What is an action potential?
A rapid reversal of a resting potential.
77
What two things can lead to an action potential (AP)?
1. Activation of a sensory receptor | 2. Input from another neuron
78
What are the phases of an action potential?
1. Rising phase: rapid depolarization, Na influex 2. Overshoot: inside is + 3. Undershoot: rapid repolarization, K+ efflux 4. Refractory period: no AP can occur
79
True or False. Na+ channels are voltage dependent.
True
80
What does the refractory period do (for AP)?
Prevents the action potential from oving backward.
81
Where do the majority of excitatory synapses occur in the mammalian brain?
On dendritic spines
82
What happens with Myasthenia gravis?
Antibodies block nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at junction between the nerve and muscle - prevents nerve impulses from triggering muscle contractions
83
What is a resting potential?
A cell membrane is polarized and carries a charge. There is a difference in electrical charge inside the cell versus outside.
84
What are the characteristics of an action potential?
Brief change in voltage from negative to positive, all or none response, all simimlar size and duration

BIO 353: Advanced Human Physiology (9 decks)

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