Exam 6 Review Flashcards
Description of the kidney (urinary system organ)
Site of urine production
Description of the ureter (urinary system organ)
To transport urine
Description of the bladder (urinary system organ)
Site of urine storage
Description of the Urethra (urinary system organ)
Structure that passes urine out of the body
Define glomerular capsules
Filtration site process that produces a filtration of the blood
Define proximal convoluted tubules
The cells that have microvilli, which increase the surface area for tubular reabsorption
Define loop of the nephron/loop of henle
U-turn with ascending limb where salts leave the nephron and descending limb where water leaves the nephron
Define distal convoluted tubules
Its cells have many mitochondria but lack microvilli; it is specialized for ion exchange
Describe collecting ducts
Carry urine to the renal pelvis
What are the functions of the urinary system?
Excrete urea, creatine, and uric acid; help control pH balance; and maintain the salt and water balance of the blood
What organs are a part of the urinary system
Ureters, urethra, urinary bladder, kidneys
What is the function of kidneys?
filter out waste products of metabolism from the blood; assist in maintaining the pH balance of the blood; ensure that glucose and proteins aren’t excreted in the urine
Where does glomerular filtration, the first stage of urine formation, occur?
within the glomerular capsule of the kidney nephrons
Why is glomerular filtrate forced from the capillaries to the glomerular capsule?
because it is under high pressure as it is pumped through the renal arteries and because the diameter of the capillary is decreased, increasing the pressure.
What is the overall purpose of tubular reabsorption, the second stage of urine formation?
Ions, glucose, and amino acids are transported from the convoluted tubules into the blood.
During tubular secretion, certain molecules are actively secreted from the ____ into the ____ for excretion.
peritubular capillary network; convoluted tubules
What are filterable blood components that become part of the glomerular filtrate?
Nitrogenous wastes; Water; Nutrient molecules; Salts
Aldosterone promotes ion exchange at the distal convoluted tubule. This helps to regulate the reabsorption of ____ and water.
sodium
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is required for ____ to be open in the distal convoluted tubule. ADH is secreted when water intake is low.
aquaporins
Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) is secreted by the atria when cardiac cells are stretched, due to ____ blood volume.
increased
ANH inhibits the secretion of ____, an enzyme that leads to the secretion of aldosterone.
renin
The body’s response to stimuli via hormonal secretion or inhibition helps maintain ____.
homeostasis
The human body has evolved to function best when the pH of body fluids is maintained at approximately 7.4. The disease may occur if the blood pH rises above 7.45, called ____, or falls below 7.35, called ____
alkalosis; acidosis
Homeostatic mechanisms that keep the blood pH near 7.4 include acid-base buffers, the respiratory system, and the kidneys. A ____ is a chemical, or a combination of chemicals, that can take up excess hydrogen or hydroxide ions, thus keeping the pH fairly constant.
buffer
When ____, are added to blood, the following reaction OH⁻ + H₂CO₃ → HCO₃⁻ + H₂O occurs.
hydroxide ions (OH⁻) ;
When ____ are added to blood, the reaction H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ → H₂CO₃ occurs.
hydrogen ions (H⁺)
If the hydrogen ion concentration of the blood rises, the respiratory center in the ____ of the brain increases the breathing rate. Increasing the breathing rate rids the body of hydrogen ions due to reactions taking place in the ____. As more CO2 is exhaled, the hydrogen ion concentration of the blood ____.
medulla oblongata; pulmonary capillaries; decreases.
In addition to the respiratory and blood buffer mechanisms of acid-base balance, the kidneys are able to rid the body of acidic and basic substances but are slower acting. If the blood is too acidic, ____ ions will be secreted, and ____ ions will be reabsorbed.
hydrogen; bicarbonate
In addition to excreting acidic or basic ions, ____ is a nitrogenous waste product produced by the kidneys that can remove excess hydrogen ions, as can phosphate.
ammonia (NH₃)
Many types of illnesses, such as diabetes and hypertension, can affect kidney function. Infection of the kidney, called ____, can also contribute to kidney disease.
pyelonephritis
One of the first signs of kidney damage is the presence of the blood protein ____ , plus white blood cells and/or red blood cells in the urine.
albumin
Destruction of more than two-thirds of the nephrons usually leads to ____, an accumulation of urea and other waste products in the blood.
uremia
The retention of water and salts by diseased kidneys can cause ____, an accumulation of fluid in body tissues. Imbalances in the ionic composition of body fluids can lead to loss of consciousness and ____.
edema; heart failure
Blood is passed through an artificial kidney machine
Hemodialysis
The surgical replacement of a defective kidney
Kidney transplant
Dialysate is introduced directly into the abdominal cavity from a plastic tube
Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD)
Organ rejection is a possibility of a ____
Kidney transplant
Dissolved molecules are passed through a semipermeable natural or synthetic membrane
Hemodialysis
Dialysate flows into the peritoneal cavity via gravity
Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD)
Similarities between the Endocrine and Nervous Systems:
Both systems are involved in regulating physiological processes within the body; Both systems utilize chemical messengers (neurotransmitters in the nervous system and hormones in the endocrine system) to transmit signals.
Differences between the Endocrine and Nervous Systems:
The nervous system primarily uses electrical impulses to transmit signals quickly over short distances, while the endocrine system releases hormones into the bloodstream for slower, long-distance communication; The effects of nervous system signaling are usually rapid and short-lived, whereas hormonal effects may be slower but longer-lasting; The nervous system is responsible for rapid, short-term responses, such as muscle contraction or reflex actions, while the endocrine system regulates long-term processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
What are Peptide Hormones?
Amino acids and include insulin, glucagon, growth hormone, and oxytocin. They typically bind to cell surface receptors and initiate signaling cascades within the cell.
What are Steroid Hormones?
Cholesterol and include cortisol, estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone. They can diffuse across cell membranes and bind to intracellular receptors, modulating gene expression and protein synthesis.
What are Hormones?
Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that regulate various physiological processes by binding to specific receptors on target cells or organs.
Function of Pituitary Glands:
Secretes hormones such as growth hormone, prolactin, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, and others. These hormones regulate growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress response.
Function of Thyroid Gland:
Produces thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), which regulate metabolism, growth, and development.
Function of Adrenal Glands:
Secrete hormones such as cortisol (regulates stress response), aldosterone (regulates salt and water balance), and adrenaline (regulates fight-or-flight response).
Function of Glands:
Primary structural components of the endocrine system. Glands such as the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, and gonads (ovaries and testes) secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.
Function of Pancreas:
Produces insulin (regulates blood sugar levels) and glucagon (raises blood sugar levels).
Function of Gonads (Ovaries and Testes):
Release sex hormones such as estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone, which regulate reproductive functions and secondary sexual characteristics.
Structural and Functional Components of the Endocrine System:
Glands; Hormones; Target Cells/Organs
What are Target Cells/Organs?
These are the cells or organs that have specific hormones receptors. Upon hormone binding, target cells or organs respond by altering their activity, gene expression, or function.
List Urinary System Disorders
Pyelonephritis; Urethritis; Cystitis; Urinary Stones; Urinary Incontinence; Bladder Cancer; Renal Failure
Treatments for urinary disorders include:
antibiotics, antiviral medication, lifestyle modifications, dialysis, surgery
Functional Roles in the Urinary System:
Filtration; Reabsorption; Secretion; Concentration and Dilution
Concentration and Dilution function in the Urinary System
The loop of Henle and collecting duct concentrate or dilute urine based on the body’s hydration needs, helping to regulate blood volume and osmolarity.
Each kidney contains millions of ____, which are the functional units responsible for filtering blood and producing urine.
nephrons
Structure of a Nephron:
Renal Corpuscle (Glomerulus and Bowman’s Capsule); Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT); Loop of Henle; Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT); Collecting Duct
Function of Renal Corpuscle
Filtration of blood occurs here, leading to the formation of glomerular filtrate containing water, ions, glucose, and waste products. Consists of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule.
Function of Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT):
Glomerular filtrate enters the PCT where reabsorption of water, ions, glucose, and other nutrients occurs. The PCT is lined with microvilli, increasing its surface area for efficient reabsorption.
Function of Loop of Henle:
Comprising a descending limb and an ascending limb, it establishes a concentration gradient in the renal medulla, essential for the reabsorption of water and electrolytes in the collecting duct.
Function of Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT):
Responsible for further reabsorption of water and ions, as well as secretion of ions and waste products into the tubule for excretion.
Function of Collecting Duct:
Receives urine from multiple nephrons and regulates the final concentration or dilution of urine based on the body’s hydration status. ADH regulates water reabsorption in the collecting duct, aiding in water conservation or excretion as needed.
____ located in the abdominal cavity, one on each side of the spine. They filter blood to remove waste products and regulate fluid and electrolyte balance.
Kidneys
Two muscular tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
Ureters
A hollow, muscular organ that stores urine until it is expelled from the body.
Urinary Bladder
A tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body during urination.
Urethra
Functions of the Urinary System:
Excretion of Metabolic Wastes; Maintenance of Water-Salt Balance; Maintenance of Acid-Base Balance (pH)
Differences Between Male and Female Urinary Systems:
Male: The male urethra is longer and passes through the prostate gland and penis. It serves both urinary and reproductive functions.
Female: The female urethra is shorter and does not pass through the reproductive organs. It is primarily responsible for urinary excretion.
Major Chemical Components Excreted by the Urinary System:
The major waste products excreted by the urinary system include urea, creatinine, uric acid, and ammonia. These waste products are formed from the breakdown of proteins, nucleic acids, and other metabolic processes in the body.
Differences Between Urinary and Digestive Waste Products:
Urinary System: Excretes nitrogenous wastes (e.g., urea, creatinine, uric acid) and electrolytes dissolved in water.
Digestive System: Excretes undigested food residues, metabolic byproducts of digestion (e.g., bile pigments), and excess water and electrolytes in feces.
Central Nervous System (CNS):
Comprises the brain and spinal cord. It integrates and processes information received from the sensory organs and coordinates motor responses.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
Consists of nerves and ganglia outside the CNS. It connects the CNS to the rest of the body and transmits sensory information to the CNS and motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.
Anatomy of Neuronal Cells and Functions:
Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and organelles essential for cell function. Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors. Axon: Conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body toward other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Types of Cells in the Nervous System:
Neurons; Neuroglial Cells (Glia):
Microglia; Astrocytes; Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann Cells (PNS)
Anatomy of the Brain:
Cerebrum; Cerebellum; Brain Stem
Cerebrum:
The largest part of the brain is responsible for higher brain functions such as cognition, voluntary movement, and sensory perception. It consists of gray matter (outer cortex) and white matter (inner regions containing myelinated axons).
Cerebellum:
Located below the cerebrum, the cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements, balance, and posture.
Brain Stem:
Connects the brain to the spinal cord and regulates basic life functions such as breathing, heart rate, and consciousness. It comprises the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
Different Areas of the Cerebrum:
Frontal Lobe; Parietal Lobe;
Occipital Lobe; Temporal Lobe
Frontal Lobe:
Controls voluntary movement, reasoning, planning, problem-solving, and emotional regulation.
Parietal Lobe:
Processes sensory information such as touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
Occipital Lobe:
Responsible for visual processing and perception.
Temporal Lobe:
Involved in auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and emotion.
Different Areas of the Brain Stem:
Midbrain; Pons;
Medulla Oblongata;
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
Midbrain:
Involved in visual and auditory reflexes, regulation of motor movements, and arousal.
Pons:
Acts as a bridge between the cerebrum and cerebellum, and helps regulate breathing, sleep, and facial movements.
Medulla Oblongata:
Regulates vital autonomic functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and swallowing.
Reticular Activating System (RAS):
A network of neurons in the brainstem that regulates wakefulness, attention, and arousal.
Limbic System:
The limbic system is a group of structures in the brain involved in emotion, memory, and motivation. It includes the hippocampus (memory formation), amygdala (emotion and fear processing), thalamus (relay station for sensory information), and hypothalamus (regulation of hormones and homeostasis).
Effects of Abusive Use of Alcohol
Alcohol: Depresses the central nervous system, leading to impaired coordination, judgment, and memory. Long-term abuse can lead to addiction, liver damage, and neurological disorders.
Effects of Abusive Use of Nicotine
Nicotine: Stimulates the release of dopamine, leading to feelings of pleasure and addiction. Chronic use can cause cardiovascular disease, lung cancer, and respiratory problems.
Effects of Abusive Use of Cocaine
Cocaine: Increases dopamine levels in the brain, leading to euphoria and increased energy. Chronic use can cause heart attacks, stroke, and neurological damage.
Effects of Abusive Use of Methamphetamine
Methamphetamine: Stimulates the release of dopamine and serotonin, leading to increased energy and euphoria. Prolonged use can cause addiction, psychosis, and brain damage.
Effects of Abusive Use of Heroin
Heroin: Depresses the central nervous system, causing feelings of euphoria and relaxation. Chronic use can lead to addiction, overdose, and respiratory depression.
Effects of Abusive Use of Marijuana
Marijuana: Alters sensory perception, mood, and cognition. Chronic use can impair memory, concentration, and motivation. Long-term use may also lead to addiction and respiratory problems.
