Exam 6

Question 1

What is meant by the term “life expectancy,” aka mortality or longevity? How has it varied over time? By sex? By race, ethnicity, or sexual orientation (why might this be)?

Answer 1

Life expectancy: length of time a person is expected to live, based on year of birth.

Marginalized group status induces unique stressors that can lower life expectancies (vs. dominant groups)

Black Americans: ~3.6 years less than Whites

Latino paradox: Latinos outlive Black people ~6.6 years, Whites 3 years

LGB: 12 years less in anti-gay (vs. welcoming) communities

As we live longer, “diseases of old age” outrank infectious diseases amongst leading causes of death

Question 2

What is the morbidity-mortality paradox?

Answer 2

Morbidity-mortality paradox: women tend to have higher rates of morbidity (sickness) but older age of mortality (death) vs. men.

1. Women self-report poorer health vs. men

• More doctor visits, use of health-related services, $ on healthcare, sick days
• Greater rates of debilitating conditions

2. Men’s rates of death higher for all major causes

• Stronger immune systems and infant robustness in girls than boys

3. Could gender norms play a role?

• Masculinity & weakness
• Women’s caretaking roles

Question 3

What are sex-linked recessive diseases? How are they typically passed on, and why are men more likely to inherit them than women (e.g., why are men more likely to inherit hemophilia)?

Answer 3

Many sex-linked recessive diseases passed on by X chromosomes.

• If the disease’s gene is recessive, men have a higher chance of morbidity than women.
• Females (XX): Would need two copies to inherit genetically-recessive diseases
• Males (XY): only one; no “override” for these genes, making men more susceptible to such diseases.
• Note: for genetically dominant diseases, only one copy of gene is required to get sick—so this pattern may look different.

Question 4

What are telomeres; what do they do? How might they help explain sex differences in longevity?

Answer 4

Telomeres: DNA sequences (“caps”) at ends of chromosome strands that protect genetic data and allow cells to divide.

• Shorten with each division; eventual cell death
• Telomere length: same for males and females at birth
• Male telomeres shorten faster than female ones ——–> greater mortality?

Question 5

What role do sex hormones (testosterone; estrogen) play in longevity? Which is higher in men vs. women, and what consequences are associated with each? According to the evolutionary perspective, If testosterone can be bad for health, why would men evolve to have higher levels of it—what advantages might it confer (what’s the “tradeoff”)? What might be the evolutionary advantages of estrogen for females?

Answer 5

Sex hormones affect health and longevity.

Testosterone: higher in men

• Cholesterol issues  higher cardiovascular (CV) risk
• Lowered immune functioning

Estrogen: higher in women

• Lower blood pressure  lower CV risk
• Associated with expressing “longevity genes”
• However, also associated with risk of breast, uterine, ovarian cancers

Evolutionary explanation:

Sex differences in mating challenges

• Males: compete for access to mates  prioritize procreation over immunity
  • Higher testosterone facilitates aggression, risk-taking
  • Tradeoff: increased mortality
• Females: invest time in gestation, raising offspring  invest more energy into self-repair
  • Mothers’ better immunity, cellular repair = better fetal, infant outcomes

Question 6

How do health behaviors (accidents; risky sex; smoking; alcohol; poor diet; lack of exercise) differ between men and women? Know whether men or women are more prone to health risks in each area, if there is any difference.

Answer 6

How do behaviors contribute to sex differences in health?

Accidents and risky sex

• Men take more risks than women
  • Higher rates of accidental death (workplace injury; leisure; home accidents; firearm; reckless driving; etc.)
• Risky sex generally related to poorer health, and is about equal in men and women
• Rates of HIV about equal by sex globally, but esp. high in marginalized communities (e.g., transwomen, Black/Latino US populations)

Globally, 5-8x as many men (vs. women) smoke cigarettes.

• Men and women both reduced smoking as we learned of health risks
  • Mortality from smoking-related disease (e.g., lung cancer) becoming more gender-equal
  • E-cig research shows men > women

Alcohol abuse greater in men.

• Decreasing but consistent sex difference
• More likely to die from alcohol-related causes
• More likely to binge drink
• More prone to dependence

Men eat less healthy diets vs. women.

• Associated w/ diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease
• Men more resistant to adopting a healthier diet
• Gender stereotypes: food, dieting

Women generally less active than men, although depends on region

• Activity also declines with age
• Sedentary lifestyle associated with chronic illness and obesity
• Obesity epidemic: over 36% of adults in the United States are obese (BMI > 30), and women more so than men

Question 7

What is UA? UC? Which sex tends to be higher in each? How do these traits affect physical health?

Answer 7

Unmitigated agency (UA) and communion (UC)—extreme and dysfunctional versions of these traits—are bad for physical health

• UA=focus on the self to the exclusion of others; higher in men
• UC=focus on others to the neglect of the self; higher in women
• Being high in these traits are sometimes more predictive of health than sex alone

UA: rude behavior; mistrust and negative view of others; smoking, drinking, drug use; lack social skills (do not seek or accept help); depression, hostility, and tension.

UC: too much energy on nurturing (stressful; taxing); decreased immune functioning; taking on others’ worries; overly intrusive, concerned, and controlling, leading to conflict; do not seek or accept help

Question 8

Sex differences in healthcare access and treatment: consider how gender role beliefs, racism, sex of the physician / patient, and egalitarianism affect healthcare.

Answer 8

• US women more likely to seek healthcare, increasing detection and treatment
• Gender norms discourage men’s help-seeking
  • Men endorse traditional masculinity beliefs = put off seeking healthcare, less self-disclosure to doctors
• Black, Latino (vs. White) U.S. men less likely to have a regular doctor
  • For Black men, may be rooted in historically-based mistrust (e.g., Tuskegee Syphilis Study)
• Sex of physician. Female (vs. male) PCPs* = longer visits, engage in more patient-centered communication
• Sex of patient. Doctors may (sometimes unknowingly) treat male and female patients differently, even when similar symptoms.

  - Implicit physician biases (automatic, unconscious judgments and behaviors exhibited by         doctors that are elicited by features of patient (e.g., sex, race, class))  based in stereotypes 
  
  - Physicians less likely to test for or treat heart disease in women than men 

Egalitarian communities reduce or eliminate sex differences in health.

• Kibbutzim: no sex differences in health status, illness behaviors (e.g., doc visits)
  • Mortality sex difference reduced
• Religious communities emphasizing similar lifestyles across sex show smaller difference in mortality (e.g., Catholic nuns/monks)

Question 9

How do race and gender intersect when observing average life expectancies?

Answer 9

On average, Black men have shorter average life expectancies than women or White men.

• Homicide (45% victims)
• Higher rates heart disease, cancer
• Higher HIV/AIDS mortality rates

Black (vs. White) babies more likely to be low birth weight, die in infancy

Question 10

What factors contribute to racial minority individuals’ shorter life expectancies, on average?

Answer 10

Racial minority (vs. White) children have less regular access to healthcare

Black and Latino children more likely to live in food deserts

• May contribute to racial differences in obesity rates

Question 11

How can SES contribute to morbidity and mortality rates? How does it intersect with race?

Answer 11

Socioeconomic status (SES) = total income, education, occupation.

Lower SES = greater morbidity and mortality

• Less access to insurance, healthcare
• Higher chance of living in a food desert (and therefore weight-related disease)
• Feminization of poverty: globally, women experience disproportionate rates of poverty
  • Reproductive obstacles: contraceptive use, STI education, access to maternal services
  • Can lead to early motherhood, making it harder to get out of poverty

Question 12

What is minority stress theory? How can it explain worse health outcomes, and for whom?

Answer 12

Although SES is associated with race in USA, it doesn’t fully account for health disparities.

• Higher SES can lessen the gap, but it persists
• Minority stress theory: regardless of SES, belonging to a stigmatized group creates unique stressors that combine to increase minorities’ vulnerability to health problems
  • Harassment; abuse; employment discrimination

Question 13

[Ch 12 JE] What are the factors that contribute to worse health outcomes for Black mothers?

Answer 13

Black (vs. White) mothers 3-4x more likely to die during or after delivery

• Medical biases can lead to lower quality care for Black (vs. White) mothers in pregnancy, during delivery, and post-partum
• Weathering: overactive fight-or-flight response from stress decreases health and increases risky coping behaviors
  • Telomeres shorten faster with allostatic load

Question 14

What are the unique barriers LGBTQ+ individuals face in accessing quality healthcare?

Answer 14

Minority stress theory can also explain health disparities in the LGBTQ+ community.

• LGB = higher rates of disease (vs. heterosexuals)
• Transgender = poorer health, disability (vs. cisgender LGB)
• Chronic stress from stigmatized status, victimization can affect health 2 ways:
  1. Increased reliance on unhealthy coping strategies (e.g., risky sex, drug use)
  2. Overburdens stress response and immune system, reducing ability to fight illness

Barriers to quality healthcare also affect LGBTQ+

• Lower rates of health insurance (employment discrimination against same-sex couples)
• Lower quality of care (doctors lack understanding of LGBTQ+ needs; unknowledgeable about hormonal therapies; discomfort; fear of discrimination)

Question 15

What are the major distinguishing factors that separate internalizing vs. externalizing disorders? Give examples of classes of disorders that fall under each umbrella, related symptoms, and the sex differences in diagnostic rates (d values).

Answer 15

Transdiagnostic approach: most psychological disorders fall into internalizing (“directed inward”) and externalizing (“directed outward”) patterns

Internalizing disorders:

• E.g., Depressive, anxiety disorders
• Experienced privately, blaming and punishing self, low self-esteem, withdrawal, self-injury
• d = -.23

Externalizing disorders:

• E.g., antisocial, conduct, substance use, impulsivity disorders
• Victimizing others, impaired judgment, inhibition, aggression, manipulation, drug use
• d = .52

Question 16

Reexamine the four gender role factors we covered in class (gender intensification hypothesis; response styles theory; expansion hypothesis; devaluation of women’s domestic labor). What are the tenets of each prediction? What evidence is there for (or against) each?

Answer 16

1) Gender intensification hypothesis: pressure to adopt sex-typed traits intensifies in adolescence as children go through puberty & approach adulthood. Not well-supported.

• Sex differences in depression do arise around puberty
• But no evidence of intensification of sex-typed traits
• “Male-typed” agentic traits (e.g., confidence) are associated with less depression, but boys and girls do not differ much on these traits

2) Response styles theory: sex differences in rumination can explain higher rates of internalizing disorders in women. Supported.

• Women tend to ruminate more
• Men tend to use more active coping strategies (distraction; physical activity)
• Rumination correlates with depression, social phobia, PTSD, generalized anxiety disorder.

3) Expansion hypothesis: occupying multiple social roles buffers against distress by giving meaning and social connectedness

• Traditional domestic labor divisions restrict women to a smaller number of roles, increasing depression
• Partially supported. Doesn’t always replicate.
• Women are occupying more roles over time.

4) Widespread devaluation of women’s labor could contribute to women’s high rates of depression. Supported.

• Sex differences in depression are smaller in subcultures that honor the homemaker role (e.g., Orthodox Jews; Amish)
• Nation-level gender equality correlates with a smaller sex difference in depression rates

Question 17

How does sexual abuse explain the sex difference in internalizing disorders?

Answer 17

Experiencing sexual abuse and violence: Supported

• Victimization associated with depression
• Girls and women more likely to experience sexual abuse, violence (18% vs. 7.6%)
• Serial victimization higher in women with disabilities

Question 18

What is neuroticism and how does it contribute to this sex difference?

Answer 18

Neuroticism: chronic tendency to experience negative emotions. Supported

• Strongly correlated with internalizing disorders
• Women score higher on neuroticism than men across cultures

Question 19

Biologically speaking, how do stress and hormones contribute to this sex difference?

Answer 19

Biology: Supported.

• Stress response: more extreme nervous system activity in women associated with depressive, anxious symptoms
  • Estrogens: enhanced sensitivity of stress response increases vulnerability to long-term effects of stress
    • Increases during puberty, as do internalizing disorders
• Heritability: no sex difference in the presence of genes; may be more epigenetic

Question 20

How are boys socialized early in life that increases their risk for externalizing disorders?

Answer 20

Gender role socialization: Supported.

• Taught to express negativity emotions through anger
  rather than ”vulnerable” emotions (e.g., sadness)
• Harsher, inconsistent discipline toward boys can
  increase aggression, criminality, delinquency

  - However, a boy’s antisocial tendencies can also 
    elicit these forms of parenting 

• More likely to turn to alcohol or drugs

Question 21

How do impulsivity, effortful control, and callous-unemotional traits contribute to the sex difference in externalizing disorders?

Answer 21

Impulsivity (sensation-seeking, novelty-seeking, risk-taking) and effortful control (”EC;” persistence, focus, inhibitory control). Supported.

• Sex differences:
  • Risk-taking and sensation seeking: d = .36 to .41
  • EC: d = -1.01

Callous-unemotional (CU) traits (low empathy, guilt, warmth). Supported.

• CU traits (d = .52) underlie aggression, criminality, lack of remorse

Question 22

Consider the roles of the prefrontal cortex and dopamine. How could they explain the higher rates of externalizing disorders in men?

Answer 22

Prefrontal cortex (PFC) development: planning, emotion regulation, impulse control. Supported.

• Higher prenatal testosterone exposure = lower PFC volume

Dopamine (DA): neurotransmitter involved in reward and control of voluntary movement. Supported.

• Higher DA functioning in women than men
• DAT1 protein regulates use of DA in brain: men more likely to inherit a version that is linked to externalizing disorders

Question 23

(Ch 13 JE) What biases exist in the diagnosis of internalizing and externalizing disorders? How might this influence the sex differences we see (hint: consider over- vs. under-diagnosis).

Answer 23

They observed that boys are over-diagnosed for ADHD, having 22% diagnosed when they did not have enough symptoms for the diagnosis of ADHD compared to 11% diagnosed girls when they did not have enough symptoms for ADHD. When there were enough criteria for the diagnosis of ADHD, 80% of the time girls got diagnosed, and 77% of boys got diagnosed. The racial biases that influence PTSD and schizophrenia diagnoses are that Black veterans were less likely than White veterans to receive a PTSD diagnosis and Hispanic patients were more likely than White patients to receive a misdiagnosis of schizophrenia. This also is compared to the fact that White patients receive more correct diagnoses of major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder. These are the racial biases for the diagnosis of PTSD, schizophrenia, MDD, and bipolar disorder. We can reduce these biases in mental healthcare by having more research done in this area, having more sensitivity to cultural differences, using symptom checklists or an evidence-supported psychological test for assessment, and using screening questionnaires. All these solutions would help reduce gender bias and race bias in mental healthcare.

Question 24

How can minority stress exacerbate risk for these disorders amongst LGBTQ+ youth?

Answer 24

Minority stress theory: higher rates of both classes of disorders amongst LGBTQ+ youth

• Victimization, discrimination, homelessness,
  internalized homophobia / transphobia

Question 25

What are the sex differences in eating and body image disorder rates? Consider anorexia; bulimia; binge-eating disorder; and muscle dysmorphia.

Answer 25

1.75-3x higher risk for women vs. men

• Anorexia, bulimia most prevalent in the West; adolescent / young adult women

Higher rates amongst transgender people, gay men

Higher risk amongst athletes in aesthetic sports

Question 26

What is objectification theory? What are its main predictions? What does it mean to be “objectified?”

Answer 26

Objectification theory: Being raised in a sociocultural context that objectifies and sexualizes the female body has consequences
for female mental health.

• Objectification: treated as a body (or collection of body parts) valued primarily for its use to (or consumption by) others
• Women’s bodies more objectified than men’s

Question 27

What beauty / appearance standards are ascribed to women? To men?

Answer 27

Women are told to look younger, skinner, curvy in all the right places.

Men are told to be more muscular, skinny, and strong jawed.

Question 28

What is meant by “self-objectification?” What is thought to cause it?

Answer 28

• Teaches women their worth depends more on appearance (vs. actions, achievements, etc.) (objectification causes it)
• May internalize, resulting in chronic preoccupation with appearance
  • Self-objectification: defining self according to how the body appears
• Eating disorder symptoms, lower self-esteem, depression, worse psychological well-being

Question 29

How does self-objectification lead to eating and body image disorder symptomology? Consider findings from Frederickson et al.’s 1998 swimsuit study. Understand how social comparison and mass media contribute to this issue.

Answer 29

Frederickson et al 1998: women randomly assigned to wear a swimsuit or a sweater in front of a mirror

• After, offered cookies for “taste test”
• Swimsuit (vs. sweater) = body shame, more restricted eating

Social comparison & body shame

Exposure to objectifying mass media

• Western women who use more social media report higher self-objectification
• Less objectification in non-Western media = fewer eating disorders?
  • As exposure to Western media increases, self-objectification & eating disorders increase

Question 30

What is “thin ideal internalization?” How can this explain racial differences in anorexia? What factors increase or decrease disorder risk for racial minority women?

Answer 30

Thin ideal internalization predicts eating disorders

• Highest in White women
• Lowest in Black women

Strong ethnic identity weakens link b/w thin ideal internalization & eating pathology

Body shame, eating disorders associated with racial discrimination

Question 31

How does transgender identity affect disorder risk?

Answer 31

Disordered eating higher in transgender (vs. cisgender) people

• Efforts to change physical appearance to better match gender identity
• Body satisfaction often increases after genital reconstructive surgery, hormone treatments

Question 32

What evidence do we see for objectification theory amongst gay men? Revisit the swimsuit study.

Answer 32

Muscle dysmorphia: obsessive preoccupation with increasing muscularity, low body fat

• Almost exclusively affects men
• Increasingly unrealistic societal pressures for men’s bodies
• Exposure to idealized images increases body dissatisfaction

Like women, gay (vs. straight) men also report greater objectification, feeling judged by appearance

May explain greater rates of eating, body image disorders amongst gay (vs. straight) men

Swimsuit study revisited

• When wore a Speedo (vs. a sweater):
  • Greater body shame in gay but not heterosexual men
• Male gaze may explain similar patterns in women and gay men

Question 33

What is the scientific definition of aggression (and what is not considered aggression)?

Answer 33

AGGRESSION: Behavior that is INTENDED to cause psychological or physical harm to another person or animal.

Question 34

What is the difference between physical vs. verbal aggression? Give an example of each.

Answer 34

• Physical aggression: Physical acts intended to cause injury or harm.
• Verbal aggression: Communications that intend to harm another person.

Question 35

What is the difference between direct vs. indirect / relational aggression? Give an example of each.

Answer 35

Direct aggression: overt behaviors aimed directly at another person

Indirect, or relational, aggression: acts intended to harm a person’s relationships or status

Question 36

Scientifically, what is considered violence? How is it different from aggression?

Answer 36

Violence: severe forms of physical aggression; extreme harm is the goal (e.g., homicide, assault, etc.).

• All violence is aggression, but not all aggression is violence.

Question 37

Who commits more violence, men or women? Amongst men, who is at highest risk?

Answer 37

Men, esp. 18-24, commit vast majority of violent crimes globally.

• Young male syndrome: Men much more likely to kill (and be killed) in late teens, early 20s than any other age

Question 38

Who commits more physical aggression, men or women? Under what circumstances is the sex difference larger vs. Smaller?

Answer 38

Sex difference arises ages 3-6 (peer groups?)

Favors men across methodologies

Sex difference is larger when:

• Younger (vs. older)
• Real-world (vs. lab)
• Unprovoked (vs. provoked)
• Gender identity salient (vs. not)

Question 39

What are the sex differences, if any, in verbal and indirect / relational aggression?

Answer 39

Women may rely on more non-physical means of harm

• Verbal: Small to zero sex difference

Indirect / Relational: harm others through ostracism, rejection

• Early research = greater in girls
• Meta analyses don’t support a difference
• Sex difference decreases with age

Question 40

What is the sex difference in bullying and cyberbullying? What consequences are associated with cyberbullying as a victim vs. Perpetrator?

Answer 40

Bullying: aggression repeated over time; perpetrator holds more power than victim (boys > girls)

Cyberbullying: committed via electronic, digital technologies

• Also greater in boys (11+), but small (d = .08)
• Victimization = depression, loneliness, low self-esteem (also perpetrators)

the take-home point is that any involvement in bullying, either as perpetrator or as victim, is associated with increased suicide risk.

Question 41

Who is more likely to experience aggression, men or women? How is this sex difference affected by race? Sexual orientation? What are the exceptions?

Answer 41

Men more likely to be targets of aggression

• Bullying
• Violent crime
• Holds across race, sexual orientation
• Exceptions: sexual aggression; IPV (some)

A recent meta-analysis found that male sexual minority individuals experience various forms of aggression (property damage, threats, and verbal harassment) more often than female sexual minority individuals (Katz-Wise & Hyde, 2012).

The same meta-analysis also found that sexual minority individuals, in comparison with heterosexual individuals, tend to experience more violence, though most effect sizes were in the small range.

The pattern of greater male victimization also holds within race and ethnicity for Black, Latino, and White people, meaning that men in each of these groups tend to experience more violent crime than their female counterparts (Lauritsen & Heimer, 2009).

since the 1970s, rates of violent crime victimization in the United States have typically been highest among Black people, followed by Latino people, and then White people.

There are two exceptions to the general trend toward greater male victimization: sexual assaults (including rape) and intimate partner violence.

Women and girls constitute the vast majority of targets of sexual aggression (Black et al., 2011), and men and women appear roughly equally likely to suffer intimate partner violence (although researchers fiercely debate the evidence for sex differences versus similarities in intimate partner violence).

Question 42

[Ch 14 JE] what are the patterns of victimization observed amongst Native Americans, and Indigenous women in particular? What are the unique challenges facing this group when it comes to tracking and reducing victimization?

Answer 42

Native Americans, esp. women, are victimized at disproportionate rates.

Murder is 10x higher than national average on reservations

3rd leading cause of death for Native women

Elevated rates of sexual or intimate partner violence, missing persons

Victimization often perpetrated by non-Natives

Sovereignty, lack of data, and stereotypes complicate this issue

Question 43

What is sex-based harassment? Give an example or two. What is the difference between quid pro quo vs. hostile environment? What are the three forms sex-based harassment can take? Give an example of each.

Answer 43

Sex-Based Harassment is a behavior that derogates/humiliates based on sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity.

• Occurs in schools, workplaces, military, etc.

Quid pro quo: person with power offers advantages for sexual favors

Hostile environment: negative speech, behavior creates intimidating or offensive environment

• Gender harassment: sexual or sexist remarks, gestures, materials
• Unwanted sexual attention: initiating unwanted sexual discussions, touching
• Sexual coercion: compelling sexual favors through threats, rewards

Question 44

How do other identities such as race, sexual orientation and gender identity exacerbate sex-based harassment?

Answer 44

Racialized sex-based harassment: race- and sex-based harassment simultaneously present

• Higher job stress, lower job satisfaction, depression, anxiety

Majority of LGBT+ employees experiences derogation at work

“Out” transgender individuals, esp. of color, face poor treatment, discrimination

Question 45

What cultural features are associated with sex-based harassment being more common?

Answer 45

• Greater power distance (presence and acceptance of unequal status, power)
• Higher collectivism (group needs > individual)

Both associated with:

Rates of male-on-female harassment

More victim blaming

Question 46

What is intimate partner violence? What general patterns do we observe between men vs. women (by race? By sexual orientation)?

Answer 46

IPV = any behavior intended to cause harm to a romantic partner.

• 30% of women worldwide experience IPV
• 38% of murders committed by intimate partners
• USA: 35.6% women, 28.5% men (varies by race)
• Similar rates and severity in same-sex vs. heterosexual relationships

Question 47

What are the primary differences between situational couple violence and intimate terrorism?

Answer 47

Situational couple violence:

• Heated conflicts sometimes get out of hand; escalate unpredictably into violence but unlikely to lead to serious injury
• The most frequent form of IPV
• Small sex difference favoring women

Intimate terrorism:

• One partner consistently uses violence and fear to systematically dominate and control the other; escalates in severity over time and can result in serious injury
• Large sex difference favoring men

Question 48

Explain the Duluth Model. What are some examples of intimate terrorism highlighted in this model? How are power and control used to terrorize intimate partners?

Answer 48

Intimate terrorism is relatively rarer and occurs when one partner consistently uses violence and fear to dominate and control the other. In intimate terrorism, aggression tends to escalate in severity over time, sometimes resulting in serious injury.

• Threats
• Intimidation
• Isolation
• Sexual control
• Economic control
• Physical or emotional/psychological abuse
• Can lead to myriad psych and phys problems

Question 49

Define sexual assault and rape.

Answer 49

Sexual assault: umbrella term capturing any unwanted sexual contact without explicit consent of the victim.

Rape: A form of sexual assault; non-consensual penetration of the mouth, vagina, or anus by a penis, finger, or object

Question 50

What do available statistics tell us about the prevalence of sexual violence in women vs. men? By race?

Answer 50

Many agencies only report on women

• WHO: 1 in 3 women experience physical or sexual violence in her lifetime

USA: 18.3% women, 1.4% men (vary by race)

By race:

• Multiracial: 33.5%
• Native American: 26.9%
• Black: 22%
• White: 18.8%
• Latina: 14.6%

Question 51

What factors influence prevalence estimates of sexual violence? Consider: Unacknowledged rape (rape myths; just world hypothesis) and Rape culture and reasons for not reporting to police

Answer 51

Unacknowledged rape: experience meets legal definitions of rape, but don’t label their experience as such.

• Less likely to interpret sexual violence as rape when endorse rape myths

Most rapists male & known to victim

• 22% strangers, 38% acquaintances, 34% intimate partners, 6% relatives

Just world hypothesis: good things happen to good people; bad things happen to bad people

Reasons for not reporting to police:

• fears that they lack adequate proof
• police will not take them seriously
• families will find out
• perpetrators will retaliate
• victim blaming

Question 52

According to research, what are the actual characteristics of most rapists (not the myths)?

Answer 52

The actual characteristics of most rapists are that it is most likely someone you know, 22% strangers, 38% acquaintances, 34% intimate partners, 6% relatives. Also they are most likely male.

Question 53

What are the individual risk factors for sexual violence victimization? Consider age, gender, and power.

Answer 53

Young, female, marginalized, disempowered

• 33% to 66% of victims are 15 years old or younger
• Higher with developmental disabilities, poverty, homelessness, sex work
• Undocumented immigrants, refugees, women in war zones at elevated risk
• Common on college campuses, esp. against women
  • Alcohol intoxication by one or both parties often involved (~50% cases)
  • Gender minority students particularly vulnerable (39.1%)

Question 54

How can social contexts contribute to sexual violence rates?

Answer 54

Hierarchical, male-dominant social contexts with powerful social norms against reporting increase risk for men (2-8%) and women (5-24%) alike.

Question 55

What is polyvictimization? What consequences does it have?

Answer 55

Polyvictimization: experience more than one type of aggressive victimization (e.g., sexual assault, physical abuse, and bullying).

• More severe trauma symptoms than repeated exposure to 1 type
• 45% female and 12% male sexual assault victims in military experience this

Question 56

What is a false rape allegation? How common are these in reality? How are rapists typically treated by the legal system?

Answer 56

False rape allegations: knowingly accusing an innocent individual of rape.

Meta-analysis: only 5.2% of allegations false (similar to other felonies)

More often, rapists get away with their crimes.

• Only a small portion are actually prosecuted
• More than half of perpetrators are White
• White perpetrators less likely to be arrested, more
  lenient sentences