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Psychology of Women > Exam 5 > Flashcards

Exam 5 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the three primary dimensions of sexual orientation?

A

Identity, motivation, and behavior.

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2
Q

Sexual identity: what is it? What are some examples of sexual identities? What are the psychological experiences that can be associated with one’s sexual identity (positive or negative)?

A

Sexual identity: how one describes their sexual orientation.

  • Incorporate traits, behaviors, values of adopted identity into self-concept
  • Many experience positive feelings about central, important identities
  • Internalized homophobia can occur due to stigmatization
  • Some experience uncertainty, fluidity, or do not identify with a sexual orientation label
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3
Q

What is sexual desire (“lust”)? Why might it be adaptive?

A

Sexual desire (“lust”): urge to engage in sexual activities.

  • Involves physiological arousal
  • Regulated by gonadal hormones, neurotransmitters (e.g., oxytocin)
  • Adaptive: motivates cross-sex unions for reproduction
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4
Q

What is love, and how does it differ from lust? Why might it also be adaptive?

A

Love (attachment): strong feelings of affection, attachment that go beyond mere warmth

  • Motivates directed attention toward specific cherished other
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5
Q

Compare and contrast passionate vs. companionate love.

A

Passionate love: dopamine, norepinephrine facilitate reward, arousal

Companionate love: oxytocin, vasopressin facilitate intimacy, bonding

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6
Q

Describe the pair-bonding system and why it might be evolutionarily advantageous.

A

Pair-bonding system: two adults of a species remain bonded for producing and raising offspring

Evolutionary function of love?

Biparental care = greater chance of survival of highly dependent offspring

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7
Q

Are the three dimensions always aligned; stable? Why or why not? Defend your reasoning from lecture. What does this tell us about sexual orientation?

A

No, same-sex desire does not always predict same-sex behavior or identity.

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8
Q
  1. What goes on during the “awareness” stage? What is “unexplored commitment” and why might this happen amongst heterosexuals in particular at this stage? (phase model of sexual identity development)
A

Awareness

  • feeling different from others
  • realizing sexual orientation can vary
  • Confusion, fear for non-heterosexuals
    • Heterosexuals often lack thought about own identity (“unexplored commitment”)
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9
Q
  1. What goes on during the “exploration” stage? What is “identity uncertainty” and what are the two reasons why it might occur amongst some sexual minority individuals during this stage? (phase model of sexual identity development)
A

Exploration of feelings, similar others, etc.

  • Identity uncertainty amongst some sexual minorities
    • If exploration fails to produce clarity
    • If resistance to same-sex sexuality
  • Heterosexuals may explore but not necessarily (can bypass)
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10
Q
  1. What goes on during the “deepening and commitment” stage? What are some common experiences amongst sexual minorities in this stage? (phase model of sexual identity development)
A

Deepening and commitment

  • greater self-knowledge
  • greater commitment to identity
  • Sexual minorities: increased involvement in LGBTQ+ community
  • Heterosexuals: consider privilege?
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11
Q
  1. What goes on during the “integration / synthesis” stage? (phase model of sexual identity development)
A

Integration/Synthesis: sexual identity integrated into one’s self-concept

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12
Q
  1. What challenges do asexuals face that heterosexuals or sexual minorities may not face? (phase model of sexual identity development)
A

Asexuals: similar, but somewhat unique, phases

  • Awareness as identity uncertainty – lack of language, pathologizing of experience
  • Distinct “discovery of terminology,” legitimizing and adopting asexual identity
  • Level of importance of asexuality, “outness” can vary

Intersection of multiple oppressed identities can complicate sexual identity development

  • Denial and erasure of same-sex sexuality
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13
Q

What is LGBTQ+ conversion therapy? Why was it developed, and is it credible? What are the mental health outcomes associated with undergoing conversion therapy?

A

Conversion therapy is the use of psychological or spiritual methods to try and “fix” someone’s sexual orientation to be the “normal” sexual orientation of heterosexuals. It was developed under the bias and discrimination against non-confirming sexual orientation. It is not credible at all, there is no evidence that it “fixes” anyone’s sexual orientation. Some of the mental health outcomes associated with undergoing conversion therapy for LGBTQ+ clients include experiencing shame, anger, anxiety, depression, and suicidal thoughts. LGBTQ+ youth are nearly twice as likely to attempt suicide if they underwent conversion therapy.

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14
Q

To what extent is sexual orientation heritable? What does this mean? (biological theories of sexual orientation)

A

Moderately heritable especially in men

  • Strong evidence for genes

Men h2=14-67%; women h2=8-30%

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15
Q

What is the neurohormonal approach? What predictions does it make about hormone exposure during fetal development and sexual orientation? (biological theories of sexual orientation)

A

Neurohormonal approach: fetal exposure to sex hormones affects development of sexual orientation.

  • Exposure to testosterone = attracted to females
  • Exposure to estradiol = attracted to males
  • Evidence in animals, not as much in humans
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16
Q

Explain the maternal immune response to Y-linked proteins. How could this explain sexual orientation in males, in particular, the increasing likelihood of identifying as gay as the number of older biological brothers increases (fraternal birth order effect)? Can this phenomenon also explain women’s sexual identity? (biological theories of sexual orientation)

A

Fetal exposure to maternal antibodies?

Y-linked proteins elicit immune response; grows with every son; affects male fetal development

Fraternal birth order effect: positive correlation between number of older biological brothers and a man’s own likelihood of identifying as gay.

  • 33% chance increase per older brother
  • Do not see the same pattern amongst women
  • Mothers of gay sons have elevated antibodies
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17
Q

What explanation does the alliance formation hypothesis provide for same-sex sexuality? What evidence do we have—is it supported in humans? (evolutionary theories of sexual orientation)

A

Same-sex sexuality is evident in 450+ animal species (33 primates).

Alliance formation hypothesis: same-sex sexual activity promotes beneficial friendship bonds between unrelated primate pairs (e.g., reciprocal altruism).

  • Supported in non-human primate studies
  • Speculative application to humans
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18
Q

According to kin selection theory, what role could same-sex oriented males play in the reproduction of close relatives? What evidence do we have? Does it explain females as well? (evolutionary theories of sexual orientation)

A

Kin selection: benefits of same-sex-oriented male relatives (e.g., childcare) outweigh costs of not reproducing

  • Supports reproduction of close relatives
  • Not supported in Western cultures
  • May explain fa’afafine of Samoa –
    • Greater altruism toward nieces, nephews
  • Does not explain female sexual orientations.
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19
Q

What is meant by the fecundity hypothesis? What evidence is there for this? Can it explain males, females, or both? (evolutionary theories of sexual orientation)

A

Fecundity hypothesis: genes for same-sex sexuality may get passed down if their relatives are more fertile.

  • Greater fecundity amongst mothers, aunts of gay (vs. heterosexual) men
    • No one really knows why
  • Does not explain female same-sex sexuality
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20
Q

What are the primary predictions of tipping point theory? How could it explain the persistence of sexual orientation in the human species? (evolutionary theories of sexual orientation)

A

Tipping point theory: alleles coding for same-sex orientation overlap with personality traits that enhance reproduction

  • Having a few of these alleles enhances reproductive success (more partners)

Some support: communal men and agentic women have more partners

  • “Tipping point” where additional alleles can change sexual orientation
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21
Q

What is the biobehavioral model? What social explanation can it provide for same-sex sexuality?

A

Biobehavioral model: same-sex sexuality can develop in sex-segregated environments with a high degree of proximity and intimacy

  • “Passionate friendships” indistinguishable from romantic love
  • Increased oxytocin can foster sexual arousal, attraction
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22
Q

What sex differences do self-report measures reveal regarding sexual behaviors and attitudes? How do these compare to brain imaging studies?

A

Most self-report effect sizes zero to small except:

  • Casual sex: frequency, positive attitudes (men)
  • Masturbation, pornography use (men)
  • Frequency of same-sex experiences (women)
  • Favorability toward sex with emotional commitment (women)

Brain imaging studies show no difference in responses to erotic stimuli

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23
Q

According to research, how likely is it these are biological versus socialized sex differences? Provide evidence for your position (e.g., Finkel & Eastwick, 2009; research on sexual assertiveness).

A

Are women really less interested in casual sex?

May be more a function of gender norms, dating scripts

Finkel & Eastwick 2009 (speed dating study)

  • Women who approached men (vs. were approached by men) = greater desire

Sexual assertiveness also more associated with power than sex

24
Q

What is the “orgasm gap?” How does it effect women? What are the three “moderators” of these effects (i.e., what three things either increase or decrease the orgasm gap, and how)?

A

Orgasm is a strong predictor of overall sexual, relationship satisfaction.

  • Orgasm gap: heterosexual women (vs. men) report lower rates of orgasm
    • Biology: distance between clitoris and vaginal opening affects orgasm rates
    • Partner’s sex: rates of orgasm higher in same-sex encounters
    • Relationship: greater in hookups than in established relationships
25
Q

What is sexual fluidity? Who is more fluid: men or women? Why might this be?

A

Sexual fluidity: sexual orientation / identity change over time

  • Women more sexually fluid than men
  • Males: greater sexual proceptivity
  • Females: greater sexual arousability
  • Women’s greater arousability may make sexual desire more responsive to external stimuli than men

Baumeister (2000) offers the provocative thesis that women’s greater sexual fluidity reflects an adaptive response to a gender hierarchy in which they wield less power, strength, and status than men.

26
Q

What attributes do men and women value in their same-sex friendships? How does this compare to what their same-sex friendships are actually like?

A

Men and women value similarity, intimacy, and positive attributes in same-sex friends

Women’s same-sex friendships: shared emotions, personal disclosure, social support

Men’s same-sex friendships: shared activities, conversations about non-personal topics (e.g., sports, work)

27
Q

Why might we see sex differences in same-sex intimacy? How are the two major explanations?

A

I. Male gender role discourages same-sex intimacy

  • Emotional restraint, homophobia (see self-disclosure as “gay”)

II. Men achieve intimacy differently than do women

Homosocial perspective: shared activities promote “comradeships” that facilitate closeness

  • Shared goals, teamwork, adherence to group norms / hierarchy
  • Strong, opposing emotions facilitate intense bonds
28
Q

What is the “audience problem?” When does it occur?

A

Cross-sex (vs. same-sex) friendships more likely to encounter the audience problem (assume friends are romantically involved)

  • More likely when genuine cues of attraction
  • Less likely when: purely platonic; woman is heterosexual and man is gay
29
Q

FWBs: what are FWBs? How common are they? What are the consequences of FWBs arrangements?

A

Friends with benefits reported by college men (54%) & women (43%)

  • More prevalent amongst White, younger, less religious people
  • Expectations for FWBs can differ
    • 1/3 contain at least one partner who wants the friendship to become a romantic relationship
  • Can create complications, but can also reportedly improve the quality of friendship
30
Q

LGBT: what are some specific friendship patterns identified with LGBT individuals (chosen families; transgender vs. LGB; passionate friendships)?

A

Special importance of friendships to meet need to belong

  • Seek out other LGBTQ+ friends
  • Chosen families: friends stand in for bio families; consist of individuals understanding unique challenges of being LGBTQ+
  • Transgender adults have larger, more diverse friendship networks than LGB (often based online)
  • Passionate friendships more frequent amongst sexual minority women, which can lead to sexual encounters
31
Q

What are the sex similarities vs. differences in mate preferences?

A

Similarities:

  • mutual love; favorable traits

Differences:

  • Men prioritize physical attractiveness more
  • Women favor earning potential more
    • Persist across time, cultures, sexual orientation (men)
    • In short-term relationships, both prioritize attractiveness
32
Q

According to parental investment theory, how could these preferences have emerged?

A

Parental investment theory

  1. Females invest more in parenting: protection, resources enhance ability to raise offspring
  2. Males invest less in parenting: physical attractiveness indicates health
  • Tends to replicate across cultures, suggesting universality.
33
Q

According to the sociocultural perspective, what informs mate preferences? Consider the experiment by Eagly et al 2009 and what it demonstrated.

A

Sociocultural perspective – mate preferences come from social roles and labor divisions.

  • People prefer mates that “balance out” home and work duties
  • Eagly et al 2009, breadwinner wants housekeeper, housekeeper wants breadwinner regardless of sex
34
Q

According to mate selection research, what variables predict actual attraction? (e.g., partner homogamy)

A

Mate preferences don’t always match the mates we choose.

Partner homogamy (similarity) especially predictive of mate selection across cultures.

Same-sex = lower homogamy (smaller pool?)

35
Q

Compare and contrast autonomous vs. arranged marriages. How do they come to be? Are they equally successful, or is one more successful than the other (e.g., divorce rates)?

A

Autonomous marriages: individuals select own partners, typically based on love

Arranged marriages: third parties (e.g., relatives) select mutually beneficial pairings

Divorce rates differ dramatically between marriages that are autonomous (50%) versus arranged (6%)

36
Q

Compare and contrast autonomous vs. arranged marriages. How do they come to be? Are they equally successful, or is one more successful than the other (e.g., divorce rates)?

A

Autonomous marriages: individuals select own partners, typically based on love

Arranged marriages: third parties (e.g., relatives) select mutually beneficial pairings

Divorce rates differ dramatically between marriages that are autonomous (50%) versus arranged (6%)

37
Q

How does the average arranged marriage work in India? What does the process look like (e.g., who is involved? To what degree is there choice? Etc.)? What are the outcomes of these marriages and why might they be generally successful?

A

The individual’s parents or older family members are involved in the process of arranged marriages. To the degree that they screen the potential mates of the individual, they are looking for. The individual is hardly involved in this process except for the initial family meeting and a few chaperoned courtships. The marriage candidates can veto whether or not they like the potential mate, but other than that they are not involved in the process of choosing the potential mate. This experience compares dating and marriage in the US by relinquishing the difficult choices that free-choice marriage has. They tend to be successful with individuals preferring arranged marriages and having higher satisfaction. 74% of young Indians prefer arranged marriage then free-choice marriage and there is higher satisfaction because there is more weight on personality, which is stable over the long-term most of the time, and prospects come veted with approval from the family.

38
Q

Consider non-monogamous relationships. What are polygamous marriages? How about consensual nonmonogamy and polyamory?

A

Polygamous marriages: one person is married to more than one other spouse at a time.

Consensual nonmonogamy (CNM): all partners agree it is acceptable to pursue more than one sexual/romantic partner at once

  • Polyamory: have more than one other adult intimate partner, with the knowledge and consent of all parties
  • Can be happy, satisfying but can experience problems when relationship rules broken, time management poor
39
Q

Which variables are predictive of couple happiness?

A

Egalitarian decision-making (often imbalanced toward men)

Fair divisions of household labor, childcare (often imbalanced toward women)

Showing love

  • Both: Affectionate behaviors
  • Wives: less negativity
  • Husbands: frequency initiating sex, couple-centered leisure, co-housework
40
Q

Are there power imbalances, on average? For whom?

A

Decision making is imbalance toward men and household labor and childcare is imbalanced toward women

41
Q

How do men vs. women prefer to be shown love?

A
  • Both: Affectionate behaviors
  • Wives: less negativity
  • Husbands: frequency initiating sex, couple-centered leisure, co-housework
42
Q

Which variables can undermine happiness and facilitate divorce or separation?

A

Insufficiencies from last slide (like not having egalitarian decision-making, fair divisions of housework, and showing love)

Jealousy and infidelity – men more reactive to sexual infidelity, women to emotional

  • Evolved: Paternity uncertainty vs. commitment?

Difficulty dealing with conflict

Demand-withdraw pattern predicts divorce

43
Q

What kinds of infidelity are men vs. women most upset by?

A

Jealousy and infidelity – men more reactive to sexual infidelity, women to emotional

44
Q

What is the demand-withdraw pattern? Who typically demands vs. withdraws in marriages? How can this facilitate divorce?

A

Demand-withdraw pattern: interpersonal relationship pattern in which one couple member criticizes or demands, and the other responds by withdrawing emotionally or physically

  • Women typically demand and men typically withdrawal, leads to facilitating divorce cause strained communication
45
Q

How can parenthood increase or decrease couples’ happiness?

A

Pros:

  • Increased / rebounded relationship satisfaction
  • Individual happiness
  • Active father involvement, coparenting especially benefits mothers
  • Love their children

Cons:

  • Decreased satisfaction (esp. mothers)
  • Post-partum depression 9.3% mothers, 3.4% fathers
  • Essentialist beliefs & expectations burden mothers
  • Fathers feel “left out”
46
Q

Who does more domestic labor, men or women? How have these trends changed over time and situation? How has this affected progress toward gender equality?

A

Across ethnicity, culture, time, and employment, women do more housework and childcare than men.

  • The gender gap in housework has decreased but persists.
  • Over the course of heterosexual marriages, husbands’ contributions tend to decline.

“Mental housework” often greater in women as well

47
Q

How are domestic roles (e.g., housework; childcare) traditionally split between men and women? How has this contributed to the “stalled gender revolution?”

A

Stalled gender revolution: Further progress is hindered by the realities of women’s domestic labor demands.

  • Men: occasional, more choice / flexibility
  • Women: ongoing, essential, time-consuming

Involvement of other adult caretakers (e.g., grandparents) can lessen childcare burdens

48
Q

Consider each explanation for domestic labor divisions, including their primary hypothesis and the support for or against each perspective.

A

Time availability theory: Couples decide how much time to spend on housework based on how much time they have available.

  • SUPPORT: More time on paid employment = less time on housework for women and men
  • COUNTERPOINT: Women in heterosexual relationships still do more housework, regardless of couple’s combined work hours
  • COUNTERPOINT: Employed women still do more housework when male partner is unemployed
  • LIMITATION: for working-class families with opposite shifts, less about how much time, and more about when

Relative income hypothesis: Couple members trade off income for
housework (whoever makes more money does less housework)

  • COUNTERPOINT: women’s relative income unrelated to amount of housework
  • COUNTERPOINT: financially-dependent husbands report less, not more, willingness to do housework
  • MIXED (“tipping point”):
  • When wives make less than their husbands, wives’ earnings negatively correlate with their housework
  • When wives make as much or more than their husbands, housework increases

Gender role ideology hypothesis: Couple’s gender role beliefs influence the division of housework

  • SUPPORT: more gender-egalitarian couples & gender-equal countries = more equal divisions of housework
  • Men may experience economic dependence as a threat to masculinity (avoid “feminine” work to combat feelings of inadequacy)
  • SUPPORT: people perceive financially-dependent men as less masculine, more powerless in marriage
  • SUPPORT: men who feel powerless at work do fewer female-typed tasks at home

Maternal gatekeeping: women’s behaviors, attitudes can discourage men’s involvement in domestic labor

  • Some women may be reluctant to give up domestic work to men, esp. if strongly identified with domestic role
  • May explain why couples perceive unequal labor divisions as “fair”
  • SUPPORT: doing up to 66% of domestic labor feels “fair” to women; up to 36% feels “fair” to men
  • SUPPORT: Women report liking housework more, and people believe women are better at it; men sometimes use strategic incompetence
49
Q

Consider each explanation for the lack of women in leadership, including their primary hypothesis and support for or against each perspective.

A

Intellect or personality: Intellect or personality: NOT SUPPORTED

Sex differences in leader effectiveness:

WEAK SUPPORT

  • 2 large meta-analyses: no sex difference
  • People perceive leaders as more effective when in gender-typical fields (Real difference or stereotypes?)
  • Female leadership benefits weaker firms’ profits
  • Association between female leader and market performance positive in gender-equal countries, negative in less equal

Sex differences in leadership style: WEAK SUPPORT

  • Women more likely to use transformational leadership
  • Active mentoring, inspire trust, encouragement
  • Greater organizational performance, worker satisfaction
  • Men more “hands off” (laissez-faire)
  • Effect sizes small or close-to-zero ranges.

SUMMARY: no evidence that men are simply better leaders.

Gender bias: Gender bias contributes to gap in leadership.

Glass ceiling & think-manager, think-male stereotype:

Glass ceiling: invisible barriers keep women from rising to upper management, regardless of qualifications, achievements

  • Think-manager think-male stereotype: women perceived as less compatible with management than men
  • Undermines women’s advancement (exclusion from “old boys’ networks,” dismissal of accomplishments, etc.).

Glass cliff effect:

Glass cliff effect: Women more likely to reach upper management under risky, unfavorable conditions (e.g., when companies are in decline).

Why might this happen?

  • To make women look bad? (high risk of failure)
  • Try something different? (status quo isn’t working)
  • Stereotypes: Women’s greater warmth useful for conflict resolution?

Sticky floor:

barriers that keep people in low-status positions “stuck” at the bottom

  • Women and people of color overrepresented in low-wage, low-mobility positions
  • Women paid less, fewer opportunities to advance than men in the same jobs

Glass escalator: men advance faster than women in female-dominated fields

50
Q

What are the four biases against women in the workplace? How could these biases explain gender gaps in women’s advancement at work (e.g., underrepresentation of women in STEM or leadership positions)?

A
  1. Prove-it-again bias: women must work harder to prove competence (due to stereotyping)
  • Identical accomplishments = “inferior,” “luck,” or “hard work” when achieved by women
  • Men = “natural talent”
  1. Maternal wall (motherhood penalty): working mothers perceived as less competent at their jobs
  • Mothers (vs. childless) = warmer but less competent
  • Fathers (vs. childless) = no competence penalty
  1. The tightrope: Employed women less likeable if assertive (violates gender norms), but less competent if warm (violates job expectancies)
  2. Tug of war and queen bee syndrome: women feel the need to compete with each other for access to limited resources (e.g., promotions)
  • Queen bee syndrome: women in authority positions in male-dominated professions disassociate from, more critical of other women
51
Q

What is the gender wage gap? Consider also its intersections with race and how that affects the gap.

A

The gender wage gap is the difference in earnings between men and women. It is usually expressed as a ratio of women’s earnings to men’s earnings–specifically, women’s median yearly earnings for full-time, year-round work as a percentage of men’s earnings.

Considering race: . Black, Latina, Asian American, Native American, and White women all earn less than men of their race group. Indeed, the wage gap seems to be even worse amongst most women of color (although Asian women actually earn more than other women, perhaps due to specific intersectional stereotypes that they are particularly competent).

52
Q

What are the explanations for the gender wage gap? What is meant by each and what is the evidence for or against each? Are they supported; unsupported; somewhere in between?

A

Occupational segregation: : MIXED SUPPORT

  • Men and women do tend to work in different occupations
  • Men’s typical occupations do pay more
  • Wage gap persists in male-dominated and female-dominated jobs
  • Also persistent within high- and low-paying occupations

Education: MIXED SUPPORT

  • In college, men do tend to pursue higher-paying majors than do women
  • However, pay gap persists across levels of education

Occupational feminization: SUPPORTED

  • Increasing the number of women in previously male-dominated fields can lead to:
    • Reduced pay
    • Devaluation of that field
  • Conversely, some emerging evidence that as men enter previously female-dominated fields, those fields are more valued (e.g., higher pay)

Salary negotiation: SUPPORTED

  • Women have lower average starting salaries
  • Women less likely to negotiate for fear of violating gender norms (e.g., politeness)
    • Perceived more negatively (tightrope bias?)
    • Offered less money than male negotiators
  • Explicitly stating that wages are negotiable can decrease this gap

Relocations: SUPPORTED

  • Women more reluctant to relocate
  • Employers see women as less of a “flight risk,” so may feel OK to pay them less

Career disruptions (e.g., motherhood penalty): SUPPORTED

  • Motherhood penalty: women more likely to experience career disruptions after children

Overwork: SUPPORTED

  • Overwork is increasing, particularly among men
    • Cultural ideals that men should work a lot (esp. to support a family)
      • Overwork increases in fathers (vs. childless men)
  • More prevalent in professional, managerial jobs (which men tend to occupy)
  • Can contribute to men’s better pay
  • Increased stress, mortality risk
53
Q

Based on available evidence, what conclusions can be made about the gender wage gap, if any?

A

That it is a very complicated subject not explainable by one theory or hypothesis.

54
Q

What are the benefits of flexible work arrangements for addressing work-family conflict?

A

Flexible work arrangements: employees control location, timing of work.

  • Greater productivity, job satisfaction
  • Lower absenteeism
  • Reduced job turnover
  • Can esp. benefit women (better able to balance family responsibilities)
  • Some government-mandated policies (e.g., paid sick leave) associated with less work-family conflict
  • Parental leave programs = fewer dropouts, higher future earnings, lower mortality amongst children
55
Q

What are some of the drawbacks of flexible work arrangements (e.g., stigma; COVID-19)?

A
  • However, historically stigmatized
    • E.g., perceived as low in career dedication
  • Working from home (WFH) exacerbated gender gaps during COVID-19 pandemic
  • Women lost jobs at 4x the rate of men
  • Women (vs. men) less likely to report that WFH improved career, productivity
  • Women experienced increased housework, childcare

Psychology of Women (4 decks)

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