Exam 3

Question 1

What is a stereotype? Describe their contents, features, and purpose.

Answer 1

Stereotype: shared beliefs about traits, qualities, tendencies associated with a group or category.

• A schema for organizing information about various groups
• Helps us make sense of the world
• Involves generalization

Question 2

According to the stereotype content model, what are the two major dimensions of most stereotypes and what do those dimensions mean?

Answer 2

Communion and agency dimensions

Communion: warmth

• “Friend or foe?”

Agency: competence

• “Capable or incapable?”

Question 3

Who’s stereotyped as more agentic, men or women? Communal?

Answer 3

Women stereotyped as the more communal sex

Men stereotyped as more agentic sex

Question 4

In class, we discussed four “quadrants” of stereotypes variably high or low in agency and communion. What are the four quadrants? What kind of prejudice is associated with each?

Answer 4

The four quadrants are:

High agency & communion: pride, admiration -> men

Low agency & communion: contempt, disgust, anger, resentment

Low agency, high communion: pity, sympathy -> women (housewives), paternalistic prejudice

High agency, low communion: envy, jealousy -> Career Women

Question 5

What is meant by the “women are wonderful” effect? For whom is it reserved and for whom is it withheld?

Answer 5

Stereotypes about women tend to be more favorable than those about men

Particular to gender-traditional, middle-class, White women

Violating gender roles = negative stereotypes

Lower SES = low agency and communion

Black women as less communal but more agentic

Question 6

What is meant by a “subgroup?” How does this affect stereotypes toward different subgroups of women (i.e., are stereotypes of women consistent across subgroups, or do they differ somehow)?

Answer 6

Within broad gender categories, there are subgroups with their own unique stereotypes.

• Levels of communion (warmth) and agency (competence) can therefore vary within a gender category depending on the subgroup

Question 7

What consequences does intersectionality have for group stereotypes? Are intersectional stereotypes simply the sum of their parts, or do they produce unique information?

Answer 7

Intersectional stereotypes of multiply-subordinated groups contain unique elements not found in the individual groups

• E.g., “Middle Eastern women” stereotypes differ from “Middle Eastern” and from “women” (see asterisks*), produce unique information

Question 8

What is a prototype? How do these relate to stereotypes? (hint: consider who’s the prototype for gender stereotypes, and who’s the prototype for racial stereotypes).

Answer 8

Powerful groups serve as prototypes

Prototype: most typical cognitive representation of a category (i.e., the cultural default for a group)

• Gender = Male
• Race/Ethnicity = White

Can make those with multiple subordinated identities feel “invisible” (Chapter 6)

Question 9

How do stereotypes typically describe transmen and transwomen? How do stereotypes typically describe lesbians and gay men? What “mistake” do lesbian, gay, and transgender stereotypes have in common (i.e., what do they conflate)?

Answer 9

Little research on transgender stereotypes

Transwomen: similar to cisgender women

Transmen: more androgynous than cisgender men

Transgender stereotyped as “confused,” “gay”

Conflation of gender identity and sexual orientation

No existing research on nonbinary, genderfluid

Sexual inversion theory: stereotypes conflate sexual orientation and gender identity

Lesbians = masculine

Gay men = feminine

Subgroups: “lipstick lesbian” vs. “angry butch;” “flamboyant” vs. “hypermasculine,” etc.

Heteronormative assumptions lead heterosexual stereotypes to mimic typical gender stereotypes

Question 10

According to evolutionary theory, where might gender stereotypes come from?

Answer 10

Gender stereotypes derive from and reflect genetically inherited differences tied to different adaptive problems

Women: parental investment, child-rearing

• Empathic, sexually reserved, nurturing

Men: attracting and competing for mates

• Agentic competitive, aggressive, strong

Stereotypes won’t change until genes do

Question 11

According to social roles theory, what information is used to inform stereotypes?

Answer 11

Social role theory: gender stereotypes arise from and reflect large-scale sex differences in social roles

• Distribution of roles informs gender stereotypes
• Role changes can produce rapid stereotype changes

Men’s roles:

• Physically demanding
• Risky
• Work outside the home
• Higher status positions

Women’s roles:

• Child-rearing
• Domestic duties
• Work inside the home
• Lower status positions

For example, imagine someone encounters a male nurse. Does social roles theory suggest we’ll use his sex to inform stereotypes about him, or his role as a nurse?

Yes, we would judge him based on his role as a nurse.

Question 12

According to biosocial constructionist theory, where do gender stereotypes come from? How are they maintained?

Answer 12

1. Divisions of labor informed by biological sex differences
2. Gender stereotypes arise from observing these divisions
3. Gender socialization prepares us for future roles by rewarding gender-consistent behavior

• Girls: kind, tidy, emotionally responsive
• Boys: brave, confident, active

Question 13

Differentiate gender prescriptions from gender proscriptions. What is the meaning of each? How do they differ? What are common prescriptions and proscriptions for women?

Answer 13

Gender Prescriptions: “What should X do?”

• Women = warm, interested in children, attentive to appearance
• Men = athletic, self-reliant, rational

Gender Proscriptions: “What shouldn’t X do?”

• Women =/= rebellious, arrogant, promiscuous
• Men =/= emotional, childlike, gullible

Question 14

Status incongruity hypothesis - why do people dislike individuals who violate gender prescriptions (or enact gender proscriptions)? What purpose does it serve?

Answer 14

Status incongruity hypothesis: violating gender rules produces discomfort about gender hierarchy

Dislike “dominant women,” “low-status” men

Justify and reinforce gender inequality

Question 15

What is stereotype threat? Give an example of what it is and how it works.

Answer 15

Stereotype threat: Members of negatively stereotyped groups feel anxiety about the confirming those stereotypes.

• Women and science/math ability
• When the stereotype is salient, elicits anxiety
• Anxiety reduces working memory capacity, undermining performance
• Ironically fulfills the stereotype

Question 16

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy? Describe an example of the process.

Answer 16

Self-fulfilling prophecy

1. Stereotypes inform expectations about a target
2. Expectations influence behavior toward the target
3. Target behaves in line with expectations
4. Outcome reinforces perceiver’s stereotypes

Darley & Gross (1983) randomly assigned “Hannah” to low or high socioeconomic status (SES).

People interpreted her ambiguous test-taking behavior to indicate lower academic ability, only when low SES.

Question 17

How do these two concepts differ from one another? (Stereotype Threat and Self-fulfilling Prophecy)

Answer 17

Stereotype threat is on how an individual of that negatively stereotyped group feeling anxiety about confirming stereotypes, eventually confirming it, though self-fulfilling prophecy is when an outside party thinks a certain way about someone then treating them differently confirming what they predicted to see.

Question 18

Are stereotypes generally accurate or inaccurate, according to research? Consider the three types of accuracy (direction; discrepancy; rank-order).

Answer 18

Direction accuracy: the direction of the sex difference

Discrepancy accuracy: the size of the sex difference

Rank-order accuracy: accuracy of relative sizes of sex differences (some bigger than others)

Research generally supports stereotype accuracy for sex differences in: –> direction nd discrepancy accuracy

Cognitive ability (underestimate real size)

“Big 5” personality traits

Nonverbal and verbal communication

• Exception: no real sex difference in talkativeness

Strong correlation between stereotypes and real differences (r = .79) –> rank-order accuracy

Question 19

In the United States, what groups are typically dominant? Subordinate?

Answer 19

Dominant: White and Male

Subordinate: Women and colored people

Question 20

What is a patriarchy? A matriarchy? Are human societies patriarchal, matriarchal, or some combination? What is meant by patrilineal? Matrilineal? Give an example. Are human societies patrilineal, matrilineal, or some combination? What is Patrilocal or Matrilocal? Are human societies patrilocal or matrilocal?

Answer 20

Patriarchy: men as dominant group.

Matriarchy: women as dominant.

Are human societies patriarchal, matriarchal, or some combination?

Patriarchal, no true Matriarchal in human societies

In terms of ancestry:

What is meant by patrilineal? Matrilineal? Give an example.

How do we determine ancestry?

• Patrilineal trace descent & pass inheritance through fathers.
• Matrilineal: through mothers

Are human societies patrilineal, matrilineal, or some combination?

It is some combination, examples of matrilineal: Navajo of North America, Garo of India, Tuareg of Northern Africa

In terms of locality:

What is meant by patrilocal? Matrilocal? Give an example.

With whom do we live?

• Patrilocal: wives live near husbands’ families.
• Matrilocal: husbands live near wives’ families.

Are human societies patrilocal, matrilocal, or some combination?

Some combination, matrilocal: affords some power, if not political… e.g., Tuareg of Sahara Desert (seminomadic Muslim society) affords women same sexual rights as men (e.g., take lovers before marriage, divorce without shame, keep property and rights after divorce)

Question 21

Define power. What is structural power (i.e., what kind of power does it afford)? Who tends to have it, men or women? What is dyadic power (i.e., what kind of power does it afford)? Who tends to have it, men or women?

Answer 21

Power: capacity to determine own & others’ outcomes.

Men = structural power (power over society at large).

• How society operates
• Who gets resources

Women = dyadic power (home and family power).

• Choose & control intimate partners, relationships
• Dependent on age, ethnicity, income, education

Structural power can be used to limit dyadic power

Question 22

What is sex ratio theory? What predictions does it make about dyadic power in societies in which women are outnumbered by men (i.e., there are more men than women in a society)? What evidence is there for and against sex ratio theory?

Answer 22

Sex ratio theory: women should hold more dyadic power when they are outnumbered by men

• Women = more selective, more emphasis on status & commitment
• Men = more committed (appealing to mates)

Support:

Male commitment (less divorce)

Women’s traditional work more valued

Women marry younger, have more children

• Note: women’s structural power decreases (literacy, education, labor force)

Against:

Women’s selectivity dependent on culture

• e.g., Western autonomy vs. “bride purchases”

Male coercion toward wives often increases (e.g., partner violence)

Question 23

What are the three ways people can exert power over others? Force - what is it? Resource control - what is it? Cultural ideologies - what is it?

Answer 23

Force, Resource Control, and Cultural Ideologies

Force - what is it?

The capacity to inflict physical or psychological harm on another

Who uses force more often, men or women?

Used by men more than women

Who is more likely to be targets of force, men or women?

Men more likely to be targets of force

How do race and sexuality intersect with this?

Racial and sexual minority men more likely to be targeted than White, straight men –> for targets of force

Resource control - what is it?

The creation, distribution of essential & desirable goods (e.g., money, land, food)

Who has greater resource control, men or women (and what’s the exception)?

Historically & presently greater in men

• Exception: child custody

How is resource control distributed by race? Sexuality?

Higher in White, Asian than Black, Latino people

Sexual minorities experience barriers (e.g., adoption legislation, denial of services)

Cultural ideologies

The beliefs & assumptions about groups used to explain & justify unequal social hierarchies.

We discussed 3 forms of “-centrism” that treat some groups as the default, while ignoring or dismissing the problems of others. What were those centrisms, and why might they maintain our society’s power dynamics?

Androcentrism: defines men as the universal or default

Ethnocentrism: dominant ethnic group = universal / “normal”

Heterocentrism heterosexual people as universal / “normal”

• Communicates that subordinate groups are less normal and less important

Question 24

What is privilege and how can it maintain power discrepancies in a society?

Answer 24

Are people always aware of their power? Not necessarily.

Privilege: automatic, unearned advantage associated with belonging to a dominant group.

• In US, privilege afforded to: White, male, heterosexual, cisgender, able-bodied, Christian, and middle class/wealthy
• May fail to notice privileges afforded by group membership.

Question 25

What is the double jeopardy hypothesis? Give an example. What is the intersectional invisibility hypothesis? Give an example. What makes these hypotheses distinct?

Answer 25

Intersectionality:

What is the double jeopardy hypothesis? Give an example.

Double jeopardy hypothesis: belonging to 2+ subordinate groups = more discrimination (vs. 1 subordinate group), ex. Being a Native American Women missing.

What is the intersectional invisibility hypothesis? Give an example.

Intersectional invisibility hypothesis: unique experiences of multiple subordinated identities ignored or disregarded, feel “invisible”, ex. A Black Women who was assaulted by a police officer.

What makes these hypotheses distinct?

The Double Jeopardy Hypothesis is suggesting that you get more discrimination when belonging to two minority groups, while Intersectional Invisibility Hypothesis shows that discrimination is not really noticed, and you feel disregarded in your individual struggles.

Question 26

According to ambivalent sexism theory, what are the two forms of sexism? What is hostile sexism? Give an example and explain how it is used against nontraditional women. What is benevolent sexism? Give an example and explain how it is used to maintain gender inequality.

Answer 26

Complementary ideologies uphold gender status quo & suggest unequal gender hierarchy is fair

• Hostile sexism (HS)
• Benevolent sexism (BS)

Hostile sexism (HS) = antagonistic beliefs about women

• Portrays women as inferior (patriarchal)
• Punishes non-traditional women: women are too easily offended

Benevolent sexism (BS) = subjectively positive, well-intentioned beliefs about women

• Men’s dependence on women for intimacy
• Rewards traditional women
• Soothes resentment

Question 27

Which form of sexism is seen as less biased, according to research? Hostile or benevolent?

Answer 27

Salomon et al 2015: Randomly assigned women to HS, BS, or nonsexist feedback after taking a difficult test

• BS Experimenter rated less sexist

Benevolent sexism sometimes seen favorably in romantic contexts

Question 28

What is social dominance orientation? Give an example of what a person with high SDO would say.

Answer 28

Belief that inequality is right and fair–some groups should have more than others.

• Higher amongst dominant (vs. subordinate) group members
• Correlated with various prejudices

Question 29

What does system justification theory predict? How can it help explain why people justify inequality, even amongst subordinated groups?

Answer 29

People are motivated to justify sociopolitical system in which they live.

• Uncertainty and unfairness = uncomfortable
• Motivates acceptance current situation as legitimate & fair (coping mechanism)
• Can lead subordinate group members to justify their lower status

Question 30

What is overt discrimination? Give a few examples. What are microaggressions? Give a few examples. Consider how they differ from overt discrimination.

Answer 30

Discrimination: unjust treatment based solely on a person’s group membership

• Overt gender discrimination is obvious and easy to recognize., ex. Women should stay in the kitchen

Microaggressions: subtle insults and indignities directed toward subordinated social groups, ex. You’re so smart for a women

• Often unintentional
• Conceptually muddy

Question 31

According to the global gender inequality index, in which two domains is gender inequality the most stark around the world?

Answer 31

World Economic Forum (WEF) conducts yearly Global Gender Gap Report

• In 2022, education and health are nearly equal in most regions
• In 2022, economic participation and political empowerment still largely unequal

Question 32

What is affirmative action? What is it designed to address?

Answer 32

• Employment law prohibits discrimination
• Employees must reflect population-level sex and race proportions

Affirmative action: enforces Title VII by increasing opportunities for protected groups (e.g., hiring quotas) –> used to address employment of people

• Has worked to reduce sex and race disparities, but controversial

Question 33

What is the confronting prejudiced responses (CPR) model? What are its obstacles, and how can we use it to encourage individuals to confront discrimination?

Answer 33

Confronting Prejudiced Responses (CPR) Model: must overcome several hurdles before actively confronting discrimination

Obstacles:

• Attributional ambiguity
• Pluralistic ignorance
• Diffusion of responsibility
• Uncertainty
• Concerns about interpersonal costs

Question 34

Attributional ambiguity - what does it mean? What factors increase ambiguity? Pluralistic ignorance - what does it mean? Why might it reduce confrontation?Diffusion of responsibility - what does it mean? Uncertainty about what to do? Concerns about interpersonal costs - what are some costs? Benefits?

Answer 34

Attributional ambiguity - what does it mean? What factors increase ambiguity?

Attributional ambiguity: difficulty in attributing negative treatment to discrimination when other possible explanations are present (e.g., male instructor smiles and nods at male student but avoids eye contact or expression towards you, a woman—is it sexism? Or am I doing a bad job? Or is it something else?)

Pluralistic ignorance - what does it mean? Why might it reduce confrontation?

Pluralistic ignorance: assuming others didn’t react because it wasn’t bad enough to warrant confrontation –> we look to others for the appropriate way to respond to a situation

Diffusion of responsibility - what does it mean?

Diffusion of responsibility: tend not to act in presence of others (assume others will act)

Uncertainty about what to do

Concerns about interpersonal costs - what are some costs? Benefits?

Even with clear and unambiguous discrimination, people may not confront based on potential personal costs

Perceived negatively, especially when confrontation appears hostile or accusatory

Women who confront sexism seen as colder, less liked, by men - violates female gender norms to avoid conflict

Perceived negatively, violates women’s gender norms

Benefits of confronting:

Women respect and like female confronters

Can reduce stereotyping and discrimination

Question 35

What is collective action? How does it differ from individual action? What are the two major catalysts of collective action?

Answer 35

Collective action = behavior enacted on behalf of a group with goal of improving the conditions for the entire group.

1. Recognize a subordinate group is disadvantaged
2. Anger (e.g., about unfairness) on behalf of the group

• Countered by system justifying beliefs
• HS motivates, BS soothes

Question 36

What is an ally? What are some risks and benefits of allyship?

Answer 36

Allies publicly support & promote the rights of a disadvantaged group they do not belong to

What makes a good ally?:

• Understand social injustices and develop empathy
• Practice humility and perspective-taking
• Intervene, but only when appropriate (avoid “savior complex”)
• Continual growth and commitment

Stigma (e.g., men as feminine)

Benefits: promoting values, gaining knowledge, belonging, community

For many, the benefits outweigh the potential interpersonal costs.

May be stigmatized (e.g., male allies as feminine, gay)

Benefits: promote values, gain knowledge and sense of belonging