Exam 5 Terms and Names to Know Flashcards
the branch of psychology concerned with interaction between physical and psychological processes and with stages of growth from conception throughout the entire life span.
Developmental psychology
marked by strong emotion, especially anger, and is aimed at hurting another.
Impulsive aggression
states that parts of the body near the center develop before the extremities.
Proximodistal principle
the crisis in later adulthood; resolving the crises at each of the earlier stages prepares the older adult to look back without regrets and to enjoy a sense of wholeness. When previous crises are left unresolved, aspirations remain unfulfilled, and the individual experiences futility, despair, and self-deprecation.
Ego integrity vs. despair
belief about the attributes and behaviors regarded as appropriate for males and females in a particular culture.
Gender stereotype
expectation that favors will be returned, if someone does something for another person that person should do something in return.
Reciprocity norm
a group with which people identify as members.
In group
environmental factors such as diseases and drugs that cause structural abnormalities in a developing fetus
Teratogen
this researcher examined how children respond to depth information. This research used an apparatus called a visual cliff. In their original research, this researcher demonstrated that children would readily leave the center board to crawl across the shallow end, but they were reluctant to crawl across the deep end.
Eleanor Gibson
this linguist argued that children are born with mental structures that facilitate the comprehension and production of language.
Noah Chomsky
the lifelong process whereby an individual’s behavioral patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes, and motives are shaped to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society.
Socialization
parents of this style make appropriate demands on their children (they demand that their children conform to appropriate rules of behavior), but are also responsive to their children.
Authoritative
during the elementary school years, the child who has successfully resolved the crises of the earlier stages is ready to go beyond random exploring and testing to the systematic development of competencies. Successful efforts in these pursuits (sports, etc.) lead to feelings of competence. Some youngsters, however, become spectators rather than performers or experience enough failure to give them a sense of inferiority.
Industry vs. Inferiority
in emergency situations, the larger the number of bystanders, the less responsibility any one of the bystanders feels to help.
Diffusion of responsibility
emotional relationship between a child and the regular caregiver.
Attachment
a social-cognitive approach to describing the ways the social perceiver uses information to generate causal explanations.
Attribution theory
This researcher proposed the self-perception theory.
Bem
people who agreed to small requests were more likely subsequently to agree to a bigger request.
Foot in the door technique
the development of processes of knowing, including imagining, perceiving, reasoning, and problem solving.
Cognitive development
formalized Heider’s line of thinking by specifying the variables that people use to make their attributions. He created the covariation model.
Harold Kelley
children of this attachment style become quite upset and anxious when the parent leaves; at reunion, they cannot be comforted, and they show anger and resistance to the parent but, at the same time, express a desire for contact.
Insecurely attached (anxious/ambivalent)
expertise in the fundamental pragmatics of life.
Wisdom
discrimination against people because of their sex.
Sexism
This term is used to describe the period of adolescence. This period is characterized by a teenager’s conflict with parents, mood disruptions, and engagement in risky behavior.
“Storm and stress”
one of the most important early social psychologists, created circumstances in which participants made judgments under conditions in which the physical reality was absolutely clear, but the rest of a group reported that they saw that reality differently.
Solomon Asch
the theory that the tension-producing effects of incongruous cognitions motivate individuals to reduce such tension.
Cognitive dissonance
the process by which people organize the social environment by categorizing themselves and others into groups.
Social categorization
minimal unit of speech in any given language that makes a meaningful difference in speech and production and reception.
Phoneme
prejudice that exists outside an individual’s conscious awareness.
Implicit prejudice
This type of primary attribution is due to something in the environment; situational attribution.
External attribution
an attribution bias in which people tend to take credit for their successes and deny responsibility for their failures.
Self-serving bias
one of the biologically based characteristics that distinguish males from females.
Sex differences
the chronological age at which most children show a particular level of physical or mental development.
Developmental age
the idea that people observe themselves to figure out the reasons they act as they do; people infer what their internal states are by perceiving how they are acting in a given situation.
Self-perception theory
the convergence of the expectations of a group of individuals into a common perspective as they talk and carry out activities together.
Norm crystallization
performing prosocial behaviors ultimately in one’s own self-interest
Egoism
refers to whether other people also produce the same behavior in the same situation.
Consensus
parents of this style are responsive, but they fail to help children learn about the structure of social rules in which they must live.
Indulgent
the study of the meanings of words and their changes over time.
Semantics
group effects that arise from individuals’ desire to be correct and right and to understand how best to act in a given situation.
Informational influence
Speech that sounds very much like a telegram, has words arranged in an order that makes sense, and contains almost all nouns and verbs. For example, a child at this stage of development who wants to get milk may say “get milk”, as opposed to saying just “milk”. As you can see, there are only two words, they are in an order that makes sense, there is one verb and one noun, and it sounds like a telegram.
Telegraphic speech
one’s sense of maleness or femaleness; usually includes awareness and acceptance of one’s biological sex.
Gender identity
the tendency of a decision-making group to filter out undesirable input so that a consensus may be reached, especially if it is in line with the leader’s viewpoint.
Groupthink
a prediction made about some future behavior ore event that modifies interactions so as to produce what is expected.
Self-fulfilling prophecy
parents of this style neither apply discipline nor are they responsive to their children’s individuality.
Neglecting
“birds of a feather flock together”
Similarity
children of this attachment style show some distress when the parent leaves the rom; seek proximity, comfort, and contact upon reunion; and then gradually return to play.
Securely attached
this researcher was trained by Sigmund Freud’s daughter, and proposed that every individual must successfully navigate a series of psychosocial stages, each of which presented a particular conflict or crisis.
Erik Erikson
This researcher worked with adolescents and discovered two types of parent-child relationships: autocratic and democratic
Elder
the single cell that results when a sperm fertilizes an egg.
Zygote
the continuing influence of heredity throughout development, the age-related physical and behavioral changes characteristic of a species.
Maturation
a psychological phenomenon that refers to learned sex-related behaviors and attitudes of males and females.
Gender
an age range in which children must obtain appropriate environmental experiences.
Critical period
this reflex allows infants to begin feeding.
Sucking reflex
performing prosocial behaviors to uphold moral principles.
Principlism
was introduced 25 years ago and remains a prominent measure of implicit prejudice. This test determines how quickly people put different concepts into the same categories.
Implicit association test (IAT)
the manner in which parents rear their children; an authoritative parenting style, which balances demandingness and responsiveness, is seen as the most effective.
Parenting style
the learned, relatively stable tendency to respond to people, concepts, and events in an evaluative way.
Attitude
the dual tendency of observers to underestimate the impact of situational factors and overestimate the influence of dispositional factors on a person’s behavior.
Fundamental attribution error (FAE)
an influential theorist on human attachment, suggested that infants and adults are biologically predisposed to form attachments, and that attachment relationship has broad consequences.
John Bowlby
a memory structure that gathers together a child’s history of interactions with his or her caretakers, the interactions that yielded a particular pattern of attachment. This model provides a template that an individual uses to generate expectations about future social interactions.
Internal working model
parent is the monitor and model in this case. If needed parent uses direct control effectively. The child learns how to make decisions and the parents are warm and nurturing.
Co-regulation
This researcher worked with preschoolers to find four types of parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, neglectful and indulgent, and see how children of the various styles acted.
Baumrind
toward the end of the preschool period, a child who has developed a basic sense of trust, can now initiate both intellectual and motor activities. The way parents respond to the child’s self-initiated activities either encourage the sense of freedom and self-confidence, or produce guilt.
Initiative vs. guilt
prosocial behaviors a person carries out without considering his or her own safety or interests.
Altruism
discrimination against people based on their skin color or ethnic heritage.
Racism
Children with this attachment style show a lack of clear attachment behavior. Their actions and responses to caregivers are often a mix of behaviors, including avoidance or resistance. These children are described as displaying dazed behavior, sometimes seeming either confused or apprehensive in the presence of a caregiver. This style was discovered later as it does not fit into the original 3 categories of Ainsworth’s experiments.
Disorganized Attachment
refers to whether the behavior occurs repeatedly in response to this situation.
Consistency
cognition-based and goal-directed aggression carried out with premeditated thought, to achieve specific aims.
Instrumental aggression
a compliance technique that arises from the reciprocity norm. When people say “no” to a large request, they will often say, “yes” to a more moderate request.
Door in the face technique
you see and meet other people because they live or work near you.
Proximity
the first two weeks of prenatal development following conception.
Germinal stage
occurs during adult midlife, people in their 30s and 40s move beyond a focus on self and partner to broaden their commitments to family, work, society, and future generations.
Generativity vs. stagnation
states that development proceeds in a direction from head to foot.
Cephalocaudal principle
the strength of the association between an attitude object and a person’s evaluation of that object.
Accessibility
willingness to assist a person in need of help.
Bystander intervention
the social psychologist who labeled the tendency for people to choose the dispositional explanation as the fundamental attribution error (FAE).
Lee Ross
rules for participation in conservations; social conventions for communicating, sequencing sentences, and responding appropriately to others.
Pragmatics
this researcher argues that young children are segregationists; they seek out peers of the same sex even when adults are not supervising them or in spite of adult encouragement for mixed-group plays. She believes that many of the differences in gender behavior among children are the results of peer relationships.
Eleanor Maccoby
the prediction that contact between groups will reduce prejudice only if the contact includes features such as cooperation toward shared goals.
Contact hypothesis
according to this hypothesis, frustration occurs in situations in which people are prevented or blocked from attaining their goals; a rise in frustration then leads to a greater probability of aggression.
Frustration aggression hypothesis
developed the theory of cognitive dissonance.
Leon Festinger
a group with which people do not identify.
Out group
Another name for the fundamental attribution error (the original name)
actor-observer effect
response that is naturally triggered by specific stimuli that are biologically relevant for the organism.
Reflex
This researcher conducted a famous experiment involving a learner and a teacher– discovered that 65% obedience occurred, obedience meaning that they teacher gave the highest shock level on the machine to the learner. Demonstrated that obedience may be a form of conformity or compliance.
Milgram
a change in behavior consistent with a communication source’s direct requests.
Compliance
people’s tendency to favor members of their own group over members of other groups.
In group bias
performing prosocial behavior to benefit a particular group
Collectivism
researcher who did not believe that the cupboard theory explained the importance of attachment. He set out to test the cupboard theory against his own hypothesis that infants might also attach to those who provide contact comfort. He separated monkeys from their mothers at birth for his experiment.
Harry Harlow
the most serious consequence of a mother’s alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Children as a result often have smaller heads and bodies, facial abnormalities, and disruptions of the CNS leading to cognitive and behavioral problems.
Fetal alcohol syndrome
researchers developed this model to explain the relationship between exposure to violent media and aggressive behavior. This model suggests that people acquire a general set of aggression-related knowledge structures through their experiences of media violence.
General aggression model
deliberate efforts to change attitudes.
Persuasion
children of this attachment style seem aloof and may actively avoid and ignore the parent upon her return.
Insecurely attached (avoidant)
a grammatical error, usually appearing during early language development, in which rules of the language are applied too widely, resulting in incorrect linguistic forms.
Overregularization
the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the decisions that would be made by the members acting alone.
Group polarization
a form of speech addressed to infants that includes slower speed, distinctive intonation, and structural simplifications.
Infant-directed speech
a theory that suggests that people attribute a behavior to a causal factor if that factor was present whenever the behavior occurred but was absent whenever it didn’t occur.
Covariation model
in this parent-child relationship, parents make the final decision, but adolescents work with parents to set rules.
Democratic
behavior that is carried out with the goal of helping other people.
Prosocial behaviors
with the development of walking and the beginnings of language, there is an expansion of a child’s exploration and manipulation of objects. With these activities should come a comfortable sense of autonomy, or independence, and being a capable and worthy person. Excessive restriction or criticism may lead to self-doubts instead.
Autonomy vs. self-doubt
group effects that arise from individuals’ desire to be liked, accepted, and approved of by others.
Normative influence
refers to whether the behavior is specific to a particular situation.
Distinctiveness
this reflex allows newborns to find their mothers’ nipples.
Rooting reflex
the idea that people perform altruistic behaviors because they expect that others will perform altruistic behaviors for them in return.
Reciprocal altruism
psychologist who developed the Strange Situation Test. Found that children’s responses to the tests fall into three general categories: securely attached, insecurely attached—avoidant or anxious/ambivalent.
Mary Ainsworth
a child’s biologically based level of emotional and behavioral response to environmental events.
Temperament
Erikson’s first stage, an infant needs to develop a basic sense of trust in the environment through interaction with caregivers. If needs are not met, mistrust may develop.
Trust vs. mistrust
minimal distinctive unit of grammar that cannot be divided without losing its meaning.
Morpheme
parents of this style apply discipline with little attention to the child’s autonomy
Authoritarian
The attachment figure acts as a base of security from which the child can explore the surrounding environment. Returning to the attachment figure brings comfort and safety in the face of a fear or threat.
Secure base
this researcher brought two groups of boys to a summer camp at Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma. The two groups were dubbed the “Eagles” and the “Rattlers”. Each group forged its own camp bonds in ignorance of the other group for about a week. From the beginning the rivalry between the groups grew violent. This experiment disproved the idea that simple contact between hostile groups alone will reduce prejudice.
Muzafer Sherif
classic social psychological experiment that concluded that guards’ and prisoners’ behavior differed from each other in virtually every observable way. However, the figure doesn’t completely reveal the extremes of the guards’ behavior. This experiment helped shed light on this scandal: situational forces can lead ordinary people to exhibit horrendous behaviors.
Stanford Prison Experiment
the process by which people select, interact, and remember social interaction.
Social cognition
a socially defined pattern of behavior that is expected of a person who is functioning in a given setting or group.
Social role
- Internal–external
- Stable– unstable (over time)
This model deals with attributions.
Weiner’s model
the tendency for people to adopt the behaviors, attitudes, and values of other members of a reference group.
Conformity
a theory of persuasion that defines how likely it is that people will focus their cognitive processes to elaborate upon a message and therefore follow the central and peripheral routs to persuasion.
Elaboration likelihood model
in this parent-child relationship, parents are demanding/strict and the child cannot discuss or influence decisions.
Autocratic
generalization about a group of people in which the same characteristics are assigned to all members of a group.
Stereotype
This type of primary attribution is due to the characteristics of the person; dispositional attribution
Internal attribution
the third stage of prenatal development, lasting form the ninth week through birth of the child.
Fetal stage
a form of speech addressed to children that includes slower speed, distinctive intonation, and structural simplifications.
Child-directed speech
Erikson believed that the essential crisis of adolescence is discovering one’s true identity amid the confusion created by playing so many different roles for the different audiences in an expanding social world.
Identity vs. role confusion
the expectation a group has for its members regarding acceptable and appropriate attitudes and behaviors.
Social norms
carried out a classic series of studies with the goal of demonstrating that bystander intervention was very sensitive to precise characteristics of a situation. They ingeniously created in the laboratory an experimental analogue of the bystander-intervention situation.
Latane and Darley
the branch of psychology that studies the effect of social variables on individual behavior, attitudes, perceptions, and motives; also studies group and intergroup phenomena.
Social psychology
the second stage of prenatal development, lasting from the third through eighth weeks after conception.
Embryonic stage
