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Exam 5 Flashcards

1
Q

Eye

A
  • *Palpebrae**-eyelids
  • *Palpebral fissure**-space between eyelids
  • *Canthi**- angle at which where eyelids meet
  • *Levator palpebrae superioris**- muscle that lifts of the eyelid
  • *Orbicularis oculi**- closes your eye (innervated by CN7)
  • *Conjunctiva**- transparent mucous membrane (stratified columnar epithelium)
  • *Palpebral conjunctiva**-under eyelid
  • *Bulbar (ocular) conjunctiva**- anterior of eye
  • *Conjunctival sac**- where contact lense lies
  • *Lacrimal apparatus**
  • *Lacrimal gland**-creates tears that sweep down and to the middle to lacrimal sac.
  • *Lacrimal caruncle**-pink thing in the medial corner of the eye.
  • *Lacrimal puncta**- tiny holes in medial eye that send tears to canaliculi.
  • *Lacrimal canaliculi**- one way valves take tears from puncta to lacrimal sac
  • *Lacrimal sac**- take tears to nasolacrimal duct
  • *Nasolacrimal duct**- tears to nasal cavity
  • *Nasal cavity-** when you cry, your nose runs with tears (lacrimal fluid) made up of mucus, antibodies, and lysozymes
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2
Q

Extrinsic Eye muscles

& Superior Levator

A

Innervated by CN 3 Ocularmotor (LR6/SO4/3)

Strabismus- affected eye turns either medially or laterally with respect to the normal eye (some people call this “lazy eye”)

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3
Q

Fibrous Tunic

A
  • *Lens**- helps focus light.
  • *Anterior cavity**-lens to cornea (aqueous humor)
  • *Posterior cavity**- lens to retina (vitreous humor)
  • *Fibrous tunic**- sclera
  • *Vascular tunic**- choroid
  • *Nervous tunic**-retina
  • *Fibrous Tunic**
  • *Sclera**- white of the eye (dura mater of brain); provides anchoring for extrinsic eye muscles
  • *Cornea**- light enters here, transparent (avascular, only pain receptors gets oxygen & nutrients from air and aqueous humor)
  • *Limbus**- renews the corneal epithelium, and is where sclera and cornea merge (border between the corneal epithelium and the bulbar conjunctiva)

Aqueous humor- is renewed continuously and is in constant motion- formed as filtrate of the blood from capillaries in ciliary processes, flows through pupil into anterior chamber, drains into veins scleral venous sinus and returns to blood

Scleral venus sinus- fluid from the posterior chamber to the anterior chamber of the anterior cavity. too much produces glocoma.

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4
Q

Iris

A

Involuntary:

parasympathetic- pupil constriction

sympathetic- dialation (fight or flight)

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5
Q

Vascular Tunic

A

Choroid-forms most of vascular tunic, continuous with ciliary body; prevents light scatter, pigmented with Melanin
Ciliary body- encircles the lens- consists of smooth ciliary muscle– focuses the lens w/ suspensory ligaments (CN3).
• Accomodation-focus on what you need to.
• Makes aqueous humor
Iris- visible, colored part of eye. Allows light to enter. Has smooth muscle fibers (sphincter- constriction(parasympathetic) and dilator- dilates (sympathetic)
• Pupil- opening of iris (pupillary light reflex)-opening for light

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6
Q

Nervous Tunic

A

Consists of two layers
Pigmented layer(deep to choroid)-like choroid, prevents light scatter.
Neural layer (deep to pigmented)
Photoreceptors cells:
Cones-color in light (lots in ML)
Rods-(night vision)don’t pick up color
• Bipolar neurons- receive action potential from PR cells, pass it on to ganglion cells
• Ganglion cells- axons form the optic nerve which runs to visual cortex.

  • *Specialized parts of the Retina**
  • *Optic nerve**
  • *Optic disc**-blind spot
  • *Ora serrata**: junction between the ciliary body and the neural layer of the retina
  • *Macula lutea**-best vision
  • *Fovea centralis**-center of ML (only cones)

Detached retina: separation of pig layer from neural layer which can be due to low eye pressure.

When stimulated by light (photons), the photoreceptor neurons signal the bipolar cells which then signal the ganglion cells to generate action potentials. Axons from the ganglion cells run along the internal surface of the retina and converge at the optic disc to leave the posterior eye as the optic nerve (remind yourself: what is a nerve?).

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7
Q

Internal Chambers, Fluids and the Lens

A
  • *Posterior cavity**- vitreous humor(collagen, ground substance, and water)-transmits light, supports lense, and maintain intraocular pressure
  • *Anterior cavity- anterior chamber (aqueous humor**) and posterior chamber
  • *Aqueous humor**- is renewed continuously and is in constant motion- formed as filtrate of the blood from capillaries in ciliary processes, flows through pupil into anterior chamber, drains into veins scleral venous sinus and returns to blood.
  • *Lens-** a thick transparent, biconvex disc that changes shape to allow focusing of the light on the retina
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8
Q

Visual feild

A

Note: the L occipital lobe is going to interpret, process R visual field.
*each eye perceives a portion of the other visual field(biocular vision).
hemi-decussation- at the optic chiasma only the median half the of the axons cross over.

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9
Q

Entire visual pathway

(@ 25:30min eye part 2)

A

Light enters through the cornea, travels through the aqueous humor of the anterior chamber of the anterior cavity and then travels through the pupil of the iris, then enters the posterior chamber of the anterior cavity which is also filled with aqueous humor, then through the lens which is bent to ensure the photon will land on the fovea centralis for the best acuity. As the photon travels through the vitreous humor of the posterior cavity to the retina, where photreceptor cells are stimulated, which stimulates bipolar cells, which stimulate ganglion cells whose axons run through the optic disc and out posteriorly forming Optic nerve (CN2) to the optic chiasma where hemi-decussation occurs, only medial axons cross over, the action potential continues and synapses in the Thalamus, and then to the Primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe, where you have conscious awareness of what you see.

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10
Q

ANS

A

Efferent visceral motor
Only corresponds to Visceral reflexes
Effectors:
Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle
Glands
Viceral motor (compared to SM)
-thinner mylen-slower
-2 synapses
-1st cell body starts in the lateral horn
-2nd cell body outside CNS, unmylenated (ganglionic neuron) to effector

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11
Q

ANS- 2 Divisions

A
  • same innervations, different actions

Parasympathetic
Resting and digesting
AKA-Cranial-sacral division
Cranial nerves (3, 7, 9, 10)
CN3-eye
CN 7, 9-salivary glands
CN 10- thoracic visera
Sacral nerves (S2-S4)
-bladder, genitals, and last of digestive tract

Sympathetic
Flight, fight, freeze, sex
Thoracolumbar division
Comes off spine at (T1-L2)

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12
Q

Commonalities & Differences in Divisions

A

Common properties
*Both have a two neuron chain
-Preganglionic neuron
-Postganglionic neuron
*Both preganglionic cells releases ACh as neurotransmitter

Differences

*Location of preganglionic cell bodies- (all in CNS- but in different areas)
Sympathetic-lateral horn
Parasympathetic- Lateral gray column
and cranial nerve nuclei (3, 7,9,10)

*Synapse of Preganglionic cell (location of ganglion):
Symp- near CNS
Para-far from CNS

* Length of preganglionic fiber:
Symp-shorter
Para- longer

* Type of neurotransmitter used by 2nd neuron on effectors:
Symp- norepinephrine
Para- Ach

Amount of terminal branching:
Symp- widespread innervation
Para- acute

Sympathetic the only to innervate blood vessels, erector pili, and sweat glands, think about when you get scared, blood vessels constrict, hair stands on end, and you sweat.

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13
Q

Parasympathetic two neuron chain

A

Parasympathetic- long preganglionic fiber; short postganglionic fiber. Preganglionic fiber synapses on ganglia in head (CNs) or terminal ganglia (organ of innervation)

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14
Q

Review Cranial Nerves 3, 7, 9, and 10

A
  • *CN 3**- postganglionic fiber innervates smooth muscle of ciliary body (pupil constriction)
  • *CN 7**- Postganglionic fiber innervates lacrimal gland, submandibular (salivary) glands.
  • *CN IX**- postganglionic fibers terminate on parotid gland (big salivary gland)
  • *CN X**- postganglionic fibers terminate on viscera (heart, lungs, liver, stomach, SI, and part of the LI until the Left Colic Flexure.
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15
Q

Sympathetic two neuron chain

A

Sympathetic- short preganglionic fiber; long postganglionic fiber. Preganglionic fiber synapses on paravertebral (sympathetic trunk ganglia) or on prevertebral ganglia (collateral ganglia).

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16
Q

Sympathetic trunk ganglia (T1-L2)

A

Off ventral rami are grey & white rami communicans attach to Sympathetic trunk ganglia (T1-L2)

  • *Grey RC**- (unmylenated) post-ganglionic fibers
  • *White RC**- (mylenated) pre-ganglionic fibers
  • *Sympathetic trunk ganglia** have Thoracic Splanchnic nerves that run anteriorly which innervate sympathetic organs
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17
Q

Pathways of sympathetic autonomic reflex arcs

“at level” option
“up or down” option

A

Thoracic viscera option

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18
Q

Abdominal vicera

A
  • only one that doesn’t synapse in the sympathetic ganglion
  • instead goes out a splanchnic nerve an synapses in a colatteral ganglion (prevertebral), then the post-synaptic nerve travels a nerve plexus to the organ of innervatiion.
19
Q

The Adrenal Medulla

(sympathetic)

A
  • It produces and releases two NTS: norepinephrine and epinephrine
  • It is stimulated by sympathetic preganglionic cells of the ANS
20
Q

The Endocrine System

A

A system of ductless glands
• Secrete messenger molecules called hormones
• Hormones travel to distant body cells and signal characteristic physiological responses
*Interacts closely with the nervous system
*Controls and integrates the functions of other organ systems in the body, slower process, but longer lasting than nervous system
Maintains homeostasis, controls growth, metabolism, stress defenses, blood chemistry

21
Q

Endocrine vs. Exocrine

A
  • *Endocrine**
  • Chemical messengers (always hormones)
  • Secreted into the bloodstream
  • Stimulate responses in distant, target organs
  • No ducts
  • *Exocrine**
  • Secrete locally onto epithelium using a duct
  • Target is in direct contact
  • Not organs (ex. Salivary, Sweat, & Lacrimal glands)
  • Never hormones
22
Q

Hormones

A
  • *Basic hormone action**
  • Circulate throughout the body in blood vessels
  • Influences only specific tissues –target cells that have receptor for hormone
  • A hormone can have different effects on different target cells
  • Effects depend on the preprogrammed response of the target cells- hormones are merely molecular “triggers”
  • Secretion triggered by three major types of stimuli (Humoral, neural, hormonal)

Control of Hormones Secretion
• Humoral – simplest of endocrine control mechanisms
 Secretion in direct response to changing ion or nutrient levels in the blood
• Neural – secretion of endocrine glands controlled by neural stimuli
Example: sympathetic nerve stimulate cells in the adrenal medulla (only example) then releases of epinephrine and norepinephrine
• Hormonal – stimuli received from other glands
-Certain hormones signal secretion of other hormones

Controlled by feedback loops (maintain homeostasis)
Negative feedback because the outcome of the loop is opposite of what turned on the loop
• Blood concentration of X declines below a minimum
-More hormone is secreted
• Blood concentration exceeds maximum
-Hormone production is halted

  • *Positive feedback loop**:
    (ex. Oxytocin- Woman has contraction, signals release of oxytocin to create more contractions)
23
Q

Classes of Hormones

Amino Acids & Steroids

A
  • *Amino Acids**
  • Monoamines (single amino acids)
  • Peptides (chains of 3-200 amino acids)
  • Hydrophilic
  • Must bind receptor on the target cell membrane and trigger second messengers
  • *Steroids**
  • lipids synthesized from cholesterol
  • Hydrophobic, thus require transport protein in blood- longer lasting
  • *-Can go across cell/nuclear membrane** to bind receptor
24
Q

Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

A

Not true master control centers- but, close (targets cells in pituitary).
• Secretes releasing factors to release hormones
• Can also secrete inhibiting hormones to turn off secretion of hormones
• The hypothalamus can only control over the pituitary’s hormones that trigger other glands to secrete their hormones (Tropic hormones)-target endocrine cells
• Axis
• Hypothalamus Pituitary Gonads
• Hypothalamus Pituitary Thyroid
• Hypothalamus Pituitary Adrenal

25
**The Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)**
**Secretes 9 major hormones** Sits in hypophyseal fossa (sella turcica) Connected to hypothalamus by stalk of tissue called the **infundibulum** **_Two basic divisions of the pituitary gland_** **Adenohypophysis** (anterior)- originates from hypophyseal pouch (glandular tissue) **Pars distalis**-large part where hormones come from. **Neurohypophysis** (posterior)- originates from brain (nervous tissue) **Hypothalamic Control of Hormone Secretion from the Adenohypophysis** **Hypophyseal portal system- double capillary bed system**
26
**Adenohypophysis**
* *Hormones**: * *Thyroid Stimulating(TSH)**: (T:Thyroid gland)(E: Stim. Thyroid to release Thyroid hormone) * *Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)**:(T:Adrenal Cortex) (E:signals adrenal cortex to release stress hormones (glucocorticoids) * *Follicle-stimulating(FSH)**: (T:gonads) (E: maturation of sex cells (sperm/ovaries) * *Luteinizing Hormone (LH)**: (T:gonads) (E: Prod/Secret. of sex hormones) * *Growth Hormone (GH)**: (T: epiphyseal plates & body cells) (E: protein synthesis & body growth) * *Prolactin**: (T: mammary glands) (E: stimulates milk production) * *Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)**: (T: fetus) (E: darkens skin)
27
**Neurohypophysis**
**Does not make any hormones, just secretes them** * *Hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract-** hormones are neurotransmitters from the hypothalamus, stored & released here * *_Secretes two hormones_** * *Antidiuretic (ADH):** (T: kidneys and arterioles) (E: Kidneys reabsorb water/ arterioles constrict-up blood pressure) * *Oxytocin:** (Uterus: contraction & mammary glands: milk secretion)
28
**Pineal**
**Pineal** Has calcium phosphate and carbonate granules- **easy to see on X-rays**. **melatonin (monoamines)** • Regulated by day/night cycles • Seasonally fluctuates • Regulates seasonal breeding in animals • Maybe involved in mood disorders • Powerful antioxidant (up to 5 mg/day take at night)
29
**Thyroid**
- Located in the anterior neck-inferior to larynx - Two lateral lobes connected by **isthmus** - **Largest pure endocrine gland** * *Hypothyroidism**-person always cold, gains weight but doesn’t feel hungry. * *Hyperthyroidism**- Person is “hot”, loses weight, very hungry, anxious. Must ablate thyroid (_radioactive iodine_). **Goiter**-lack of iodine **_Thyroid follicles_**: * *_Follicular cells_** * *Thyroid hormone** (TH)- controls metabolic rate and protein synthesis * *_Parafollicular cells_** * *Calcitonin**- depresses blood calcium levels (via osteoclasts and kidney function).
30
**The Parathyroid Gland**
Lie on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland Contain two types of endocrine cells **Chief cells** – produce **parathyroid hormone** (PTH) 3 important actions on **bone, kidney, and GI tract**
31
**Adrenal Glands**
-Located on surface of the kidneys -Nerve supply is almost exclusively sympathetic fibers **-Two endocrine glands in one** • **_Adrenal medulla_** – a knot of postganglionic sympathetic nervous tissue  **Chromaffin cells** – modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons • **Secrete** - norepinephrine and epinephrine). • Active in “fight or flight” response • **_Adrenal cortex_** – bulk of the adrenal gland  _Cortex-3 layers:_ • Zona glomerulosa • Zona fasciculata • Zona reticularis
32
**The Adrenal Cortex**
-Secretes a variety of hormones- all are steroids and are grouped into **two main classes**: • **_Glucocorticoids_** **Cortisol** – stimulated by ATCH secreted by **zona fasciculata** and **zona reticularis** -stimulates fat and protein catabolism and gluconeogenesis. • Helps the body deal with stressful situations * *\*_Mineralocorticoids_** * *Aldosterone**- is secreted by the **zona glomerulosa** - Sodium/water reabsorbed to maintain blood volume and pressure. **Cushings disease**: prolonged exposure to inappropriately high levels of the hormone cortisol.
33
**The Pancreas**
Located in the posterior abdominal wall Contains both **endocrine and exocrine cells** • **Exocrine cells** – **acinar cells** – secrete digestive enzymes into small intestine(ducts) • **Endocrine cells** – **pancreatic cell** clusters (islets of Langerhans) contains both α and β cells **_Main endocrine cell types_** • **Alpha cells** (α cells-20%) – secrete **glucagon** Signals liver to release glucose from glycogen **Raises blood sugar** • **Beta cells** (β cells-70%) – secrete **insulin** Signals most body cells to take up glucose from the blood Lowers blood sugar • **G cells** – secrete gastrin (stimulates digestive activity) **Disorders of the Pancreas**: Diabetes Mellitus **Type I diabetes** – develops suddenly, usually before age 15 T cell-mediated autoimmune response destroys beta cells **Type II diabetes** – adult onset Usually occurs after age 40 Cells have lowered sensitivity to insulin Controlled by dietary changes and regular exercise
34
**The Gonads**
**Guys** * *Both exocrine and endocrine** * *Exocrine**: produce sperm * *Endocrine**: produce gonadal hormones (steroids) consist mainly of microscopic tubules that produce sperm. * *Testosterone** - Promotes the formation of sperm - Maintains secondary sex characteristics **Gals** * *Both exocrine and endocrine** * *Exocrine**: produce eggs * *Endocrine**: produce Estrogen * *Estrogen** –secondary sex characteristics and signals uterine mucosa to repair itself after menstrual period * *progesterone** – prepares the uterus for pregnancy
35
**Hormones**
* *_Adenohypophysis_** * *Thyroid Stimulating**(TSH): (T:Thyroid gland)(E: Stim. Thyroid to release Thyroid hormone) * *Adrenocorticotropic hormone** (ACTH):(T:Adrenal Cortex) (E:signals adrenal cortex to release stress hormones (glucocorticoids) * *Follicle-stimulating**(FSH): (T:gonads) (E: maturation of sex cells (sperm/ovaries) * *Luteinizing Hormone** (LH): (T:gonads) (E: Prod/Secret. of sex hormones) * *Growth Hormone** (GH): (T: epiphyseal plates & body cells) (E: protein synthesis & body growth) * *Prolactin**: (T: mammary glands) (E: stimulates milk production) * *Melanocyte-stimulating hormone** (MSH): (T: fetus) (E: darkens skin) * *_Neurohypophysis_** * *Antidiuretic hormone** (ADH):(T: kidneys and arterioles) (E: Kidneys reabsorb water/ arterioles constrict-^ blood pressure) * *Oxytocin**: (Uterus: contraction & mammary glands: milk secretion) * *_Pineal_** * *melatonin** (T: body cells) (E: sleep cycles) * *_Thyroid_** * *Thyroid Hormone**: (T: body cells) (E: ^metabolic rate, ^ protein synthesis) * *Calcitonin**: (T: osteoclast & kidneys) (E: inhibits OC, down calcium/Kidneys inhibited from reabsorbing calcium) * *_Parathyroid_** * *Parathyroid hormone**: Targets: Bone to stimulate osteoclasts; Kidney & Digestive tract to absorb calcium. * *_Adrenal Medulla_** * *Epinephrine**: (T: body cells) (E: widespread fight or flight, sympathetic response) * *_Adrenal Cortex_** * *Cortisol (Glucocorticoid)**: (T: body cells) (E: fat & protein → usable energy) * *Aldosterone (Mineralcorticoid)**: (T: Kidney) (E: reabsorbtion of sodium & water, up blood volume & water) * *_Pancrease_**: * *Glucagon**: (T: Liver) (E: ^ blood sugar) * *Insulin**: (T: Liver & body cells) (E: blood sugar down) * *Gastrin**: (T: Stomach) (E: ^ digestive activity) * *_Thymus_** * *Thymic Hormone**: (T:Thymus) (E: maturation of T-cells) * *_Testes_** * *Testosterone**: (T: body cells & testes) (E: formation of sperm/2nd sexual characteristics) * *_Ovaries_** * *Estrogen**: (T: body cells & ovaries) (E: uterine repair/2nd sexual characteristics) * *Progesterone**: (T: Uterus) (E: maintain pregnancy) * *_The GI tract_** * *Cholecystokinin**: gallbladder to release bile * *_Placenta_** * *Human chorionic gonadotropin**: (T: placenta- sustain pregnancy)\*Preg test * *_Skin_** * *Keratinocytes**: (T: Small Intestine) promotes calcium absorption by the small intestine * *_Kidneys_** * *Erythropoietin** (EPO): Red bone marrow- RBC production
36
**Ear**
37
**Tympanic Membrane**
Separates outer from middle ear. Shaped like a flattened cone Slopes inferiormedially Transmits air vibrations to auditory ossicles (middle ear bones)
38
**Middle ear**
• **_Ossicles_**- malleus, incus, stapes (merge onto oval window)- transmit sound from external ear to internal ear. • **_Round window_** – dissipates left-over energy in cochlea Oval window (stapes) • **_eustachian tube/ auditory tube_**- equalizes air pressure (connects middle ear to the nasopharynx) • **_Reflexive muscles_** that anchor/ protect ossicles from loud sounds (tympanic reflex) -Stapedius (stapes)(CN7) -Tensor tympani (malleus)(CN5)
39
**Inner ear**
**3 boney structures**: **cochlea-** purely sound **vestibule**- static equilibrium, linear equilibrium **semi-circular canals**-equilibrium **Soft membranous structures** within each: Cochlea (Cochlear duct) Vestibule (**Utricle and Saccule**) Semi-circular canals (semi-circular ducts) * *Perilymph**-fluid inside boney structure * *Endolymph**- fluid inside soft membrane, inside boney structure
40
**Utricle and Saccule-vestibular apparatus**
Concerned with balance and position of head while stationary Acceleration (linear) Endolymph Has special sensory epithelium called **Macula** Receptor hair cells Innervated by CN VIII (vestibular division) **Maculae** Horizontal (utricle) and vertical (saccule) Receptor hair cells **Otolithic membrane**- responsible for “triggering” hair cells **Otoliths**- calcium carbonate crystals
41
**Semicircular Ducts (semicircular canals)-Vestibular apparatus**
Rotational movement Anterior, posterior, and lateral semicircular duct. Opens onto utricle **_Ampulla_** **Crista ampullaris**- (crest with hair cells) **Cupula-** jelly-like pointed cap
42
**Cochlea**
* A spiral blind tube * Innervated by **CN VIII**- cochlear division * Perilymph-filled chambers: **scala vestibuli** (starts from oval window) and **scala tympani** (continuous with each other-_helicotrema_). Merge onto round window – Vestibular membrane – Basilar membrane • Endolymph **Cochlear duct**- scala media • **Organ of Corti** – **Stereocilia**- hair cells – Supporting cells • **Tectorial membrane**-roof of organ of corti
43
**Hearing Pathway**
* Sound vibrations * Pinna * External Auditory meatus→canal * Tympanic membrane vibrates * Ossicles vibrate (malleus, incus, & stapes) * Turns to pressure on Oval window * Travels through the perilymph of scala vestibuli * Helicotrema→ scala tympani * Pushing on basilar membrane of Cochlear duct * hair cells on basilar membrane (stereocilia) bend * creating an action potential in the cochlear nerve fibers of CN8 * (excess pressure/ waves released via round window) * CN8 to Thalamus * Primary auditory cortex in temporal lobe

Anatomy (6 decks)

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