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Anatomy & Physiology 2 > Exam 4 study Guides > Flashcards

Exam 4 study Guides Flashcards

1
Q

List and/or discuss the functions of the urinary system.

A

a. Excretion- removing waste from blood
b. Elimination- discharge from body
c. Homeostasis- regulation

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2
Q

Identify and discuss the difference in structure and function between the cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons. Which type do we have more of?

A

a. Cortical- located in the cortex (85%)

b. Juxtamedullary- (15%)- make urine concentrated

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3
Q

Identify, describe the histology of and function of each part of the nephron. Distinguish renal corpuscle from the renal tubule.

A

a. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)- majority of reabsorption (Na+ and H20)
b. Loop of Henle: Ascending and Descending- reabsorption of (Na+ and Cl-)
c. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)- secretion with minimal reabsorption
d. Renal corpuscle: glomerulus and the capsule
e. Renal tubule: PCT, loop of Henle, DCT

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4
Q

Trace the flow of blood from the renal artery through the kidney to the renal vein.

A

Renal artery –> segmental arteries–> lobar arteries —> interlobar arteries–> arcuate arteries–> cortical radiate arteries–>afferent arteriole–> glomerulus/->efferent arteriole–> peritubular capillaries–>enters venous circulation

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5
Q

Trace filtrate from the renal corpuscle to the urethra.

A

Glomerulus➖PCT➖descending loop➖ascending loop➖DCT➖collecting duct
b. Medullary pyramid➖renal papilla➖minor calyx➖major calyx➖renal pelvis➖ureters➖urinary bladder➖urethra

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6
Q

Identify and discuss the origin of the 3 most common nitrogenous wastes.

A

a. Urea
b. Ammonia
c. Uric acid

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7
Q

List and explain the 3 major physiological processes that occur in the nephron and collecting duct.

A

a. Reabsorption- moving from nephron/tubuleàblood
1. Location: various places; tubular fluid (inside nephron)àinterstitial fluidàblood (peritubular capillaries)
b. Secretion- driven by concentration gradient, moving from bloodàtubular fluid
1. Location: DCT; peritubular capillariesàDCT
c. Filtration- driven by pressure, moving from bloodàfiltrate
1. Location: Glomerulus; glom

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8
Q

Explain the design of the renal corpuscle and explain how the process of filtration occurs.

A

a. Glomerulus- big ball surrounded by capsule
b. Capsule (Bowmans)- parietal wall, capsular space, visceral wall
c. Filtration Membrane: cells & proteins do NOT filter out
1. Fenestrated capillary- holes
2. Basement membrane- epitheal cells
3. Filtration slits- podocytes

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9
Q

Explain or diagram the steps of autoregulation AND the steps of central regulation (involving the RAAS and SNS) of GFR. What should normal GFR be?

A

Myogenic mechanism:

  1. Renal BP highàGFR highàafferent arteriolesàconstrictàlowers blood flow & lowers GFR
    b. Tuboglomerular feedback loop:
  2. Renal BP lowàGFR dropsàthree things:àincreased Hydrostatic P & GFR
    a. Efferent arteriolesàconstrictàincrease HP
    b. JG cells stimulatesàRAASàincrease BP
    c. Keep more Na+ & Cl-àincrease water to bloodàincrease BP
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10
Q
  1. Identify the parts of the kidneys that secrete Renin and EPO.
A

a. Renin- secreted from juxtaglomerular kidney cells

b. EPO- interstitial fibroblasts; peritubular capillary and PCT

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11
Q
  1. Identify where most reabsorption occurs and differentiate between active and passive reabsorption
A

Reabsorption: 4 types, mostly in Nephron Loop

  1. Na+ actively transported: tubuleàtubule cellàinterstitial spaceàperitubular capillary
  2. Move Na+ out, electrical gradient to draw out (-), like Cl-
  3. Obligatory osmosis- hypertonic interstitial fluid, excess fluid in tubule moves out to regulate tonicity
  4. Na+ cotransport: Na+ & glucose ions bind to same carrier of Na+, Na+ continues active transport while glucose diffuses into blood
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12
Q

dentify the role of hormones, such as aldosterone, ADH and PTH, in reabsorption. What part of the nephron do the hormones targe

A

a. ADH- targets DCT & collecting duct
1. Creates aquaporins (water channels), allows from more osmosis of water
2. ADH constantly secreted at low levels, ^ secretion allows for above to occur
b. Aldosterone- targets Na+/K+ exchange pumps, makes us keep Na+
1. Water follows Na+

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13
Q

Explain countercurrent multiplication and identify where it occurs.

A

Two structures w/ fluid moving in opposite directions

b. Locations: nephron loop and vasa recta
c. Function:
1. Ascending limb- impermeable to water
a. Moves Cl- & Na+ to interstitial fluid between limbs
2. Descending limb- permeable to water
a. Na+ in interstitial fluid draws water out by osmosis
b. Also, gaining urea while losing water

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14
Q

Identify or list the general characteristics of normal urine.

A

a. 95% water, 5% solutes
b. Pale yellow, slight aroma
c. pH of 4.5-8.0

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15
Q

Distinguish between acute and chronic renal failure.

A

a. Acute- decreased GFR sudden onset, reversible w/ treatment
b. Chronic- prolonged decreased GFR

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16
Q
  1. Explain the process of dialysis.
A

Machine filters waste out and returns fluid back to body

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17
Q

Distinguish between the male and female urinary systems

A

a. Females urethra: 3-4 cm
b. Males urethra: 20 cm
1. Prostatic urethra - passes through the prostate gland
2. Membranous urethra - through the urogenital diaphragm
3. Spongy (penile) urethra - passes through the length of the penis

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18
Q

Explain the design of the bladder, specifically the detrusor muscle and location of the ureteral opening

A

a. Trigone region at bottom; two ureter openings corners & urethral opening at bottom point
b. Detrusor muscle w/ rugae for expansion
c. Fills bottom to top

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19
Q

Identify the type of epithelium found in the ureters and urinary bladder.

A

A. Ureters - transitional epithelium
B. Bladder - transitional epithelium
C. Proximal urethra - transitional epithelium
D. Mid-urethra (males) - stratified and pseudostratified columnar
E. Distal urethra - stratified squamous epithelium

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20
Q

Describe the steps of the micturition reflex that leads to urination.

A

a. Bladder fills from the bottom up, because of more room to expand
b. Stretch receptors activated when full
c. Corticospinal pathway: bladderàspinal cordàbrain stemàthalamus
1. Sensory info sent in, motor info sent out
d. Internal sphincter- smooth muscle, controlled by PSNS, SNS
e. External sphincter- skeletal muscle, we can control

21
Q

Identify the body fluids that make up the ICF and the ECF.

A

a. Extracellular Fluid- interstitial fluid, plasma, transcellular, lymph
b. Intracellular Fluid- cytosol

22
Q

Describe the electrolyte conditions of the ICF and ECF. Which fluid contains the most water in the body? Who typically has more fluid (water weight), men or women

A

a. Anions (-)
1. ICF: HPO4- hydrogen phosphate & proteins
2. ECF: Cl-
b. Cations (+)
1. ICF: K+ potassium
2. ECF: Na+ sodium
c. Intracellular (inside cell) fluid at 66%
d. Men

23
Q

List the ways in which water is gained and eliminated from the body. How much total water should be gained each day?

A

a. In: food, liquids, cellular metabolism (ETS product is water)
b. Out: kidneys (pee), lungs (water vapor), skin (sweat), intestines (poop)
c. 2.5 L/day

24
Q
  1. Identify which fluid is monitored and regulated for osmotic concentration
A

a. ICF- intracellular fluid

25
Q

Explain what occurs in fluid shift and identify its driving force.

A

a. Fluid shift: Interstitial fluidàPlasma & chronic: Intracellular FluidàInterstitial Fluid
b. Osmotic concentration, solutes

26
Q

Explain the how potassium levels are controlled considering that is primarily located in the ICF.

A

a. Na+/K+ exchange pumps

b. K+ channels

27
Q

Define pH and indicate the normal pH for blood.

A

a. pH- level of alkalinity or acidity of substance
b. pH low = H+ high
c. pH high = H+ low
d. Blood pH- 7.35-7.45

28
Q

Identify or explain the reasons that blood pH may change.

A

Hyperventilation, vomiting, dehydration, hypoventilation, medications, diarrhea,

29
Q

Define or explain acidosis and alkalosis.

A

a. Acidosis- blood pH below 7.35

b. Alkalosis- blood pH above 7.45

30
Q

Explain the location of and general role of a buffer system in regulating pH.

A

a. Phosphate buffer: ICF
b. Protein buffer: ECF & ICF
c. Carbonic Acid buffer: ECF

31
Q

Explain the relationship between pCO2 and pH.

A

pCO2 increases, then pH decreases

b. pCO2 decreases, then pH increases

32
Q

Using the carbonic acid-bicarbonate reversible reaction, explain how the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system functions to regulate pH.

A

a. CO2 (lungs) can be altered to move one way, or HCO3- (kidneys) can be altered to move the other way
b. H+ can change the direction as well

33
Q

Identify where the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system is active.

A

Extracellular Fluid: ECF

34
Q

Explain the how protein buffer system regulates pH and identify the major proteins used by this buffer system.

A

pH too lowàcarboxal group donates H+

b. pH too highàamino acid group accepts H+

35
Q

Identify where the phosphate buffer system is active and how it regulates pH.

A

a. H3PO4ßàH2PO4+H+ßàHPO4+H+ßàPO4+H+

b. ICF, phosphate and hydrogen shifts

36
Q

Explain the general role of the lungs and the kidneys in regulating pH.

A

Lungs: increase or decrease CO2, response within minutes

b. Kidneys: increase or decrease HCO3- or H+, response within hours

37
Q

Identify, list or draw the parts of the alimentary canal and the accessory organs.

A

a. GI Tract:
i. Mouth
ii. Pharynx
iii. Esophagus
iiii. Stomach
v. Small intestine
vi. Large intestine
b. Accessory organs
i. Teeth
ii. Tongue
iii. Salivary glands
iiii. Liver
v. Gallbladder
vi. Pancreas

38
Q

Identify the major tunic layers of the alimentary canal from deep to superficial and indicated a function for each one

A

Lumen mucosa submucosa Muscularis externa serosa

b. Muscularis externa: circular and longitudal muscle (oblique in stomach only)

39
Q

Identify the location and function of mesentery.

A

Mesentery- attaches small intestine

b. Mesencolon- attaches large intestine

40
Q

Chewing

A

Mastication

41
Q

Swallowing

A

Deglutition

42
Q

Ball of digestive contents

A

Bulus

43
Q

A mixture of materials and stomach secretions that is highly acidic and thick

A

Chyme

44
Q

propelling food via wavelike pattern of muscle contractions, circular and longitudinal muscles

A

Peristalsis

45
Q

These contractions churn the bolus

A

Segmentation

46
Q

Describe each of the functions of the digestive tract

A

a. Ingestion- putting in mouth
b. Motility- movement of food
c. Digestion- chemical (enzymes, etc. breaking down food) and mechanical (chewing)
d. Secretion- glands secreting mucus, enzymes, hormones
e. Absorption- absorbing things from food

47
Q

Describe the phases of deglutition

A

a. Oral/Buccal phase
1. MouthàOropharynx
2. Voluntary
3. Reflex response triggered when bolus enters oropharynx
b. Pharyngeal Phase
1. OropharynxàEsophagus
2. Bolus contacts pharyngeal wall
3. Larynx elevates and Epiglottis folds over
c. Esophageal Phase
1. EsophagusàStomach
2. Force bolus to esophagus
3. Peristaltic contractions to stomach
4. Bolus triggers LES to open, enters stomach

48
Q

Identify the digestive organs that are retroperitoneal.

A

a. S- suprarenal glands (adrenals)
b. A- anus
c. D- duodenum
d. P- pancreas
e. U- uterer
f. C- colon (ascending and descending)
g. K- kidney
h. E- esophagus
i. R- rectum

49
Q

Explain the function of each of the specialized cells in the gastric glands.

A

a. Mucous cells = mucusàgastric pit/stomach
b. Chief cells = pepsinogenàgastric glands/stomach
1. ^ converts to pepsin: breaks down proteins
c. Parietal cells = HClàgastric glands/stomach
d. G Cells = gastrinàgastric glands/stomach
1. ^ stimulates chief & parietal cells; contractions

Anatomy & Physiology 2 (4 decks)

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