Exam 4 review material

Question 1

Describe each of the four categories of ecosystem services. Given an example of a service provided by plants, identify the category in which it belongs.

Answer 1

Provisioning- products or goods such as water, fish, and timber. You have to take it out of the ecosystem to use it.
- Food, clothing, medicine, building, shelter, wood.
Supporting- are indirect or changes occurring over a long period of time
Ex: oxygen production through photosynthesis, habitat for living organisms, nutrient cycling, soil formation
Supports the whole ecosystem
Regulating- Benefits obtained from regulation of ecosystem processes. ecosystem functions such as flood control and climate regulation
ex: flood control, erosion control, pollination, storm protection and disease control
cultural- non- material benefits such as recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits
Art, parks, mental health, physical health, beauty
Boosts in cognitive performance, such as attention and memory, due to viewing nature

Question 2

Describe what types of ecosystem services are public goods.

Answer 2

Public goods provided- clean air, water, oxygen
Public good- doesn’t diminish anyone’s enjoyment which means that any number of people may enjoy them without affecting other peoples’ enjoyment.
Ex: aesthetic view
Semi-public goods like parks or hiking trails
no one person has an incentive to pay to maintain the good. Thus, collective action is required in order to produce the most beneficial quantity.

Question 3

Explain the history of Rauvolfia serpentina (snakeroot) becoming a valued medicinal resource in industrialized
cultures and what it is used for today.

Answer 3

Snakeroot has been used by indigenous cultures in india and nepal to treat insanity, epilepsy, insomnia and anxiety (also used to treat snakebites which wasn’t effective) Also used for poison arrows.
Snakeroot used by Ghandi in meditation
Treats: hypertension, paranoia, schizophrenia, insomnia
Reserpine- chemical compounds analyzed in 1940s to determine the source of the sedative effect and synthesized to make medicine. Originally extracted from root of Rauvolfia serpentina

Question 4

Ethnobotany

Answer 4

study of indigenous people and their use of plants

Question 5

Indigenous peoples

Answer 5

people in non-industrialized societies in their native lands practicing their traditional practices.

Question 6

Describe the ecological disparity between plants and animals, especially how food is acquired.

Answer 6

Animals can move away for survival. Plants cannot so they produce chemicals for protection. If they can’t produce these chemicals they might die out. Plants can be harvested more readily.
Plants produce food while animals consume food
Plants transform gases (co2) and inorganic nutrients (N,P) into living tissue
Plants produce chemical compounds

Question 7

Explain how plant-animal interactions lead to useful products for humans

Answer 7

plants put energy into making secondary compounds to protect themselves or attract animals
these chemicals can be used for medicine

Question 8

Describe the types of evidence that inform us about historical use of plants and plant products.

Answer 8

Scientific literature/ historical texts
temples/ religious buildings
Preserved containers/ pots, tools, cosmetics, medicine, etc.
pictures/ paintings
Starch granules on bone cueva de los corrales, argentina (2000-1500 years BP)
use of plants (evidence includes fossils, pollen, charcoal, murals, etc)
Burials- present-day Israel and Palestine, family buried on a bed of flowers.
feces
starch granules on bones

Question 9

Distinguish angiosperms from gymnosperms, focusing on whether seeds are protected.

Answer 9

gymnosperms= conifers. Include evergreens, spruce, pine trees, etc. They have seeds instead of spores that are uncovered or naked.
Angiosperms arise after gymnosperms with mammals. Flowery plants. Have seeds but their seeds are covered.

Question 10

Describe some modifications of leaves and name *examples of useful products from leaf modification.

Answer 10

Leaves control photosynthesis and store sugars
In some species, they are herbivore deterrence
Ex: cactus has modified leaves for this= spine
Succulents store water (ex: Aloe vera)
Contains oil and other secondary compounds
Tendrils for attaching to substrates (pea plant)
Attraction of pollinators by resembling flowers (poinsettia)
Store carbohydrates underground (onion= modified leaves aka bulbs)
Carnivorous habits (ex: pitcher plants) to absorb nutrients

Question 11

Describe how tubers and rhizomes are modified stems and name *examples of useful products from each.

Answer 11

Underground stems - asexual reproduction (no sex)
Tuber: spherical, storage (potato, cassava)
Rhizome: horizontal (ginger, bamboo, irises)
How do we know they are stems? Stems have nodes (“eyes”), internodes, axillary buds
Tuber has nodes
Runner/ stolon- aboveground stems that run along the grounds (mint, strawberries) (we eat the leaves and the fruits)

Question 12

Explain why turmeric is a valued plant and know which part is used.

Answer 12

Rhizome (stem)
Active ingredient is curcumin, a natural plant chemical
Medicinal purposes
Dye- food, textiles
Food- curry ingredient
Cultural- good luck and fertility

Question 13

Classify a flower as perfect or imperfect based on an image or description.

Answer 13

Perfect flowers have both male and female parts (produce pollen and eggs)
Imperfect flower had either male part or female part (not both)
Hermaphrodite has only perfect flowers (also called bisexual flowers I looked it up)
Mulberries are fleshy sepals, mostly
Hibiscus petals are sepals and are used in hibiscus tea

Question 14

Describe the features of seeds that make them useful to humans.

Answer 14

Seeds are valuable food resource (have protein, fiber, minerals, vitamins, and starches)
Large quantities
Harvesting
Sustaining for plants
Gingko biloba trees are gymnosperms with female trees producing seeds that smell bad as they decay

Question 15

List plant strategies that attract pollinators* and how frequently animals are needed for pollination

Answer 15

Pollination is when the pollen lands on the stigma (not the same as fertilization)
Shaped specifically to be accessible to butterflies (ex: Turk’s cap lily)
Flies like the rotting mat smell of a carrion flower
Nectar guide in UV range
Scarlet bee balm color attracts hummingbirds (color red). Beak long enough to reach nectar.
Fruity smell of saguaro cactus flowers and white flowers attracts bats
Nectar!!!
Dutchman’s pipe traps fly pollinators
mimicry/ deception (ex: orchids look like mates)

Question 16

Explain the history of federal regulations on the use of Cannabis in the U.S. Know laws discussed in class.

Answer 16

Massachusetts (1914) was the first of 48 states to criminalize it
1937- Marihuana Tax Act- taxed for medicinal and non-medicinal uses.Physicians opposed it because of the extra paperwork and the tax
Concern that it would limit research on medical benefits
1951- Boggs Act- included Cannabis as a narcotic with opiates and mandatory minimum sentencing
1970- Controlled Substances Act- categorized as a schedule I Drug
1978- Compassionate Use Investigational New Drug problem established
Patients could be prescribed it on a case-by-case basis (13 patients initially)
1992- closed to all but existing patients under the program

Question 17

Distinguish between Hemp and Marijuana according to federal regulations.

Answer 17

Industrial hemp is “the plant Cannabis sativa L. and any part of such plant, whether growing or not, with a delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentration of not more than 0.3% on a dry weight basis”
Prior to 2014 Farm Bill, the US hemp market depended on imports but after, state agriculture departments could cultivate hemp in pilot projects.
After 2018- amendment passed to Farm Bill, the definition was “the plant Cannabis sativa L (…) included the seeds thereof and all derivatives, extracts, cannabinoids, isomers, acids, salts, and salts or isomers, whether growing or not…”
No more than 0.3% THC in any part of the plant
Legally declassified hemp as a Schedule I drug
Marijuana includes all parts of C. Sativa that is over 0.3%

Question 18

Describe economic uses of hemp and the plant parts that are used for each.

Answer 18

Stem is used for the Hemp (source of fiber from stems)
Naturally dioecious
Breeding has produced some monoecious varieties for edible seeds and seed oil
Female flowers have more CBD
Wind pollinated (but managers remove male plants or buy “feminized” seeds)
Hemp fibers used in clothes, Used for textiles/ paper, pharmaceuticals, food (grain, seed oil, seeds), cosmetics, biofuels etc
2014 Farm Bill made it easier to grow for industrial uses
Also a source of cannabidiol (CBD) and is the primary economic resource today

Question 19

Discuss how reliable are classifications of plants by strain and the stated THC-CBD content

Answer 19

Not very reliable. It can be difficult to guess the THC-CBD content based on the plant.

Question 20

Discuss how artificial selection has changed the chemical composition in Cannabis sativa, based on intended uses, compared to the wild plants.

Answer 20

Humans breed plants or animals for certain desirable traits (larger size of a food resource, more fibers, etc)
Evidence from palynology, fossils, ancient texts, genetics
Cannabis sativa has been bred to have higher THC content for drug use (greater psychoactive- hallicinogen effect)
The industrial hemp from of C. sativa has been bred to have higher CBD levels for the dietary supplement market and medical purposes [1-2% to 20-30%]
How does raising THC levels benefit humans?
Trial showed that administering doses of higher THC didn’t have a significant difference
Increased appetite with higher THC
Greater feelings of anxiety and dejection
THC appears to decrease anxiety at lower doses and increase it at higher
CBD appears to increase anxiety at all doses

Question 21

Garlic

Answer 21

coughs, fevers, earaches, irregular menstruation, intestinal worms, digestive problems
Mostly used for chelesterol
Garlic should not replace prescribed statins for lowering cholesterol for someone at risk of heart failure
Taking medicines together is risky and can lead to bleeding

Question 22

Peppermint

Answer 22

Most effective for IBS and other digestive disorders
Can cover up other unpleasant remedies
Antimicrobial effects
Marketed for cosmetic use but can be irritating due to the menthol – skin rashes
hybrid (cross between spearmint and watermint), Leaf material or essential oils extracted from leaves.
Risks: side effects are infrequent and mild

Question 23

Explain how the protection of tropical rain forests will affect access to medicinal resources, including knowledge.

Answer 23

Tropical rainforests have undergone widespread destruction with losses thousands of species that have not yet been investigated
Indigenous people care about fragile ecosystems
have to spend more time and research searching for medicinal plants that they rely on. Causes loss of tradition and knowledge.
Many rural populations rely on herbal remedies as the only health care- loss of resource and oral traditions
New medicines needed: resistance evolving in pathogens to current meds

Question 24

Know how secondary chemical compounds differ from primary production, their purpose for the plant and how
humans use them

Answer 24

Secondary chemical compounds are produced for plant protection and survival. Humans can often use these chemicals for medicine and cosmetics.
Infection or herbavores

Question 25

Describe how salicylic acid protects plants.

Answer 25

Salicylic acid is a hormone that signals the plant to become more resistant to herbivores and pathogens–activates genes for:
Stronger cell wall at site of infection/ wound
Synthesis of enzymes that attack pathogens
Antimicorbial compounds
Production of SA lowers plant growth-must be needed
Volatility signals neighbor plants to become resistant
Acetylsalicylic acid caused less gastric distress
Salicylic acid for wart, corn removals and other skin ailments
Carried by slugs that eat the plants

Question 26

Name the three types of psychoactive drugs and their overall effects on humans.

Answer 26

Stimulants- excite and enhance mental alertness and
physical activity; they reduce fatigue and suppress hunger.
ex: Caffeine, Ephedra (FDA banned ephedrine alkaloids), coca cola, Khat, Cocaine
Stimulants can be antagonistic (but not completely) (awake but still impaired)
Depressants- dull mental awareness, reduce
physical performance, and often induce sleep or a trancelike
state.
Effects: calming, reduces mental awareness and physical performance, pain perception.
Additive- combing depressants amplifies the effect
Dosage- low doses can increase excitement but higher makes you drowsy (High levels: Coma, Death (respiratory failure)
Ex: wine, opium, morphine, heroin
Hallucinagens- altered states of consciousness. Affect perception through production or mimicking of serotonin (another neurotransmitter). changes in perception, thought, and mood, often inducing a dreamlike state.
Ex: Marijuana (THC), LSD,

Question 27

Know the first active chemical isolated from a plant and its main importance in medicine

Answer 27

Morphine- From the opium poppy
named after Morpheus- the greek god of dreams
Morphine depresses the areas of the brain involved in the perception of pain and reduces the anxiety that accompanies pain
the drug of choice for the control of intense pain from severe burns or visceral pain during the postoperative period, cases of terminal cancer, and kidney stones

Question 28

Explain the importance of the Fertile Crescent in agriculture. Name the earliest domesticated crop from that region.

Answer 28

sites in southeast asia (parts of iran, iraq, turkey, syria, lebanon, and israel). remains of both plants and animals date back to 9,000 to 14,000 years, with barley being the first crop discovered
An early domesticated plant: domesticated is growing something over and over again to get certain traits
Two-row Barley
More sugars
Wild and cultivated
Six-row barley
Higher protein content
Cultivated
Preferred in N. America
Led to really good soil for agriculture (nutrients)

Question 29

Name early cultivated foods from the Americas.

Answer 29

CORN
Foods native to the US (not a lot)- Blueberries, Pecans, Cranberries, Sunflowers, maple syrup
Mexico- a birthplace of domestication (corn, beans, squash, peppers, agave, etc)
Caves- forager/ farms
5500-year-old maize cobs
Baskets made from agave fibers
Corn starch found in crevices of grinding stones

Question 30

Describe how domesticated plants differ from wild plants and what type of selection is responsible for these
differences.

Answer 30

Artificial selection- selection of certain traits by humans through breeding
Wild mustard bread to produce things like broccoli, kale, cabbage, etc
How do domesticated plants differ from their wild relatives?
Larger, Different colors, seedless, taste (sweet vs spice), easy to harvest.
Shattering v. non-shattering in wheat and beans- Natural shedding of seeds when they ripe (break apart easily)
Non-shattering is easier to harvest because you can collect it and do what you want with it.
natural selection, wild plants evolved mechanism that ensure their survival in their environment. once a plant has been domesticated, traits are artificially selected to suit human needs

Question 31

Explain how farming practices such as monocultures, tilling and agrochemicals impact our water and soil
resources.

Answer 31

Monoculture- ever-increasing loads of pesticides and titanic annual additions of synthetic and mined fertilizers, much of which ends up fouling drinking water and feeding algae-smothered aquatic “dead zones” from Lake Erie to the Gulf of Mexico.
Tilling- Ripping the soil up with steel blades creates a nice, clean, weed-free bed for seeds, but it also disturbs soil microbiota and leaves dirt vulnerable to erosion.
Agrochemicals- damage on soil
Chemicals end up in the water and leave the ground hollow. Phosphorus cycle- Phosphorus taken out of the ground, polllutes water sources.

Question 32

Name foods from grasses that are important in agriculture, the broad term used to describe these grasses, and the term for the fruits they produce.

Answer 32

Foods from grasses: wheat, ear of wheat, barley, corn (imperfect flowers/ monesious plant), rye, rice, oats, millet
- Corn= most common cereal
Grasses used in agriculture are called cereals
Fruits they produce are called grains- seed coats fused to fruit wallName foods from grasses that are important in agriculture, the broad term used to describe these grasses, and the term for the fruits they produce.

Question 33

Describe the purpose of Bt crops.

Answer 33

toxins are continuously produced and persist for some time, fewer chemical insecticides are needed, and a greater range of insect pests are controlled
Bt corn produces pesticides (kill insects)
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a bacteria that produces crystals that kills caterpillars and other insects - a natural insecticide

Question 34

Distinguish between herbicide and pesticide resistance, indicating what evolves resistance in each case.

Answer 34

Herbicide resistance- inherited ability of a plant to survive a herbicide application (such as weeds) (HT= Herbicide-tolerant)
Weeds evolve herbicide resistance
Crops are genetically engineered to be resistant
Pesticide resistance- inherited ability of a plant to survive a pesticide application (such as bugs)
Pests evolve pesticide resistance.
Resistance evolves in organisms overexposed to a chemical (the population being treated.)

Question 35

Describe organic agriculture and explain how it is regulated. List the types of products, derived from plants, which may be labeled as organic.

Answer 35

focus on environment (soil, water quality)
avoidance of pesticides, antibiotics, most synthetics
farm to table (rules for additives)
livestock as well as plants
no GMOs
Regulated by Organic Foods Production Act, USDA

Question 36

Describe an invasive species and know whether they are regulated.

Answer 36

an alien species who’s introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm (not all alien species is invasive)
Out compete the native species for food and resources, adaptable, reproduce quickly, few predators, thrive in disturbed systems
Regulated by Department of the Interior- US Fish and Wildlife service
Lacey Act prohibits import and transport of “injurious species”
Formed National Invasive Species Council- tries to prevent the introduction of invasive species and minimize the negative effects
USDA APHIS PPQ- Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Protection and Quarantine Program

Question 37

Know examples of invasive species discussed in class and the plants or ecosystems they harm.

Answer 37

Emerald Ash Borer
Asian Longhorned Beetle- Maple, Ash, Birch, Willow, Poplar, Elm)
Gypsy Moth- damage Oaks and Aspens
Hemlock Woody Adelgid
Spotted Lanturn Fly- feeds on the invasive tree of Heaven and a wide range of crops
Bonus- Tree of Heaven- Displaces Native Trees + secretes harmful chemicals into soil + supports other invasive insects.

Question 38

xerophytes.

Answer 38

plants that have evolved adaptations to survive the xeric (dry) conditions of the desert. The goal is to try and avoid the lack of moisture by storing more water. They have spines that have been modified from leaves so they don’t lose as much water. (cacti and aloe vera have modified leaves for this) It also reduces water loss.

Question 39

Compare and contrast the climates and types of trees dominating these forest biomes: boreal, moist coniferous
(temperate rainforest), deciduous, and tropical rainforests. Know which forest biome has the highest diversity.

Answer 39

Boreal- cool, named after boreas- greek god
Mostly gymnosperms (conifers dominate in Boreal)
Resources: lumber, paper pulp, mink, caribou and other meat
Winters are long and cold but less severe than the tundra
Conifers: Tagua, Evergreen, resin-producing trees
lumber, paper pulp, caribou
Moist Coniferous (temperate rainforest)- found in North America in the Pacific Northwest, the winters are mild and the summers are cool
Dominated by conifers
Temperate Deciduous- found in the eastern half of the United States. Dropping leaves in the fall.
Dominated by deciduous trees
trees: oak, maple, beech, hickory, and other hardwoods
winters cold and summers hot (varying temperatures)
Tropical rainforests- Highest diversity
dominant tree is the broadleaf evergreen
tallest trees

Question 40

Know examples of plant-animal interactions with the local species described in the PowerPoint.

Question 41

Poison hemlock

Answer 41

Poison hemlock- All parts are poisonous; toxicity of leaves increases in the spring because animals are becoming more active.
Paralysis- mind remains clear until death
Has compound leaves
purple/ reddish stems
white flowers

Question 42

Poison Sumac

Answer 42

Poison sumac- compound leaves (7-13 leaflets), shrub with red branches and stems when it’s young, deciduous (red leaves fall in autumn), green to white berries
deciduous shrub or small tree, whose leaves turn red in autumn and fall off.

Question 43

Poison Ivy

Answer 43

Poison Ivy- compound leaves, grows up trees in hairy vines. Three leaflets. Small white berries that birds eat.
All parts contain urushiol which causes severe skin reactions or lung irritation if smoke is inhaled.
poison ivy’s leaflets are arranged in threes. It can be a ground cover, or shrubby, or a woody vine (called a liana), achieving nearly treelike proportions

Question 44

Compare and contrast the effects of extracting non-timber compared to timber resources from the rainforest.

Answer 44

Non-timber resources are more sustainable because you don’t have to cut the tree down to get fruit, latex, Brazil nuts, Tagua nuts, cacao, vanilla, banana, etc.
We cut down rainforest so we can have pasture for cows. It ruins the soil.

Question 45

nutmeg and mace,

Answer 45

Nutmeg and mace are the only spices that are obtained from the same fruit. Nutmeg is the seed and mace is the red net-like fiber (aril) that surrounds the seed. Nutmeg is native to the Moluccas (Spice Islands).
Mace is the spice from the red covering around the seed, nutmeg is the seed kernel

Question 46

Explain how management and protection of lagoons will affect local economies where they exist.

Answer 46

Improve water quality
Enhance commercial and recreational fisheries stocks
Increase tourism and recreational opportunities
Jobs
Increase property values

Question 47

Distinguish between in situ and ex situ conservation and explain how they are connected. Define reintroduction.

Answer 47

In situ- in place. Keep the plants there and move the people in order to protect the species. Includes protected areas. Conservation within natural habitat. Sometimes efforts include reintroductions of native species
Ex situ- allowing people to stay in the area and move the plants. Not being protected in its native habitat.
Ex: Botanical gardens and arboretums protect living plants but there are space limits- less diversity within the species than in nature
Reintroduction- when a species has been extirpated from their native habitat, reintroduction efforts aim to reestablish new, self sustaining populations in the same place.

Question 48

Explain the benefits of biodiversity

Answer 48

Ecosystem services provided by plants
More medicines, knowledge in understanding nature, products, tourism, recreational opportunities, and levels of trees help temperature control, water cycle, nutrient cycling, and habitats.
purifies air and water
stabilizes Earth’s climate
controls pests and diseases
shelter and building materials
food, fuel, and fiber
moderates, floods, droughts, wind, and temp extremes
pollinates plants
soil fertility+ cycles nutrients
detoxifies and decomposes waste

Question 49

Summarize the core principles of Fair Trade.

Answer 49

“Trade, not aid”
Goals: environmental development and consumer awareness
Better prices and wages for growers and laborers
Not regulated with many certifiers
If transnational companies get involved, is this a marketing ploy?
Three core principles: social, environmental, and economic
Social development in producing countries.
Economic development of producing countries.
Environmental protection in areas that are certified.

Question 50

Describe a green roof and name at least four benefits they provide to the individual home or business
owner.

Answer 50

Cools area
Lowers energy bills through temperature regulation
Reduces emissions of greenhouse gasses if you are using greenhouse gases for heating and cooling
Carbon sequestration (absorbs heat)
Habitat for pollinators
aesthetic/ recreation/ social space
Possible to grow foods in some settings

Question 51

Compare and contrast intensive and extensive green roofs, including the types of plants and the advantages
and challenges of each.

Answer 51

Intensive green roofs- deeper soil, larger plants
Holds more weight - like trees
Extensive green roofs- less soil, smaller plants
Doesn’t hold as much weight
Sedum- hardy, shallow roots, stores water, drought tolerant
Ongoing research to determine which plant species will be most effective
Biodiversity is important