Exam 1

Question 1

ecosystem

Answer 1

living organisms interacting with each other and abiotic components in an area

Question 2

ecosystem services

Answer 2

The services of ecosystems that benefit humans

Question 3

Provisioning services

Answer 3

products or goods such as water, fish, and timber. You have to take it out of the ecosystem to use it.
- Food, clothing, medicine, building, shelter, wood.

Question 4

Supporting services

Answer 4

are indirect or changes occurring over a long period of time
Ex: oxygen production through photosynthesis, habitat for living organisms, nutrient cycling, soil formation
Supports the whole ecosystem

Question 5

Regulating services

Answer 5

Benefits obtained from regulation of ecosystem processes
ecosystem functions such as flood control and climate regulation
ex: flood control, erosion control, pollination, storm protection and disease control

Question 6

Cultural services

Answer 6

non- material benefits such as recreational, aestetic and spiritual benefits
Art, parks, mental health, physical health, beauty
Boosts in cognitive performance, such as attention and memory, due to viewing nature

Question 7

Describe how values of ecosystem services might be assessed and what factors could be considered in
determining values.

Answer 7

How often do we use these services?
Public goods provided- clean air, water, oxygen
Goods and services we pay for directly- food, timber, national parks
Cost of care/ cost of cleanup
Revenue from tourism
Amount of jobs it provides
What is it worth to people?

Question 8

Conflicts with services

Answer 8

Clean air and water vs right to release pollutants
Health vs economy
Pipelines through Native American sacred lands

Question 9

biodiversity

Answer 9

is the variability among living organisms. It includes diversity within
and among species and diversity within and among ecosystems. Biodiversity is
the source of many ecosystem goods, such as food and genetic resources, and
changes in biodiversity can influence the supply of ecosystem services.

Question 10

Describe what types of ecosystem services are public goods and evaluate whether and how these should be protected.

Answer 10

Public goods provided- clean air, water, oxygen
Public good- doesn’t diminish anyone’s enjoyment which means that any number of people may enjoy them without affecting other peoples’ enjoyment.
Ex: aesthetic view
Semi-public goods like parks or hiking trails
no one person has an incentive to pay to maintain the good. Thus, collective action is required in order to produce the most beneficial quantity.

Question 11

Explain the history of Rauvolfia serpentina (snakeroot) becoming a valued medicinal resource in industrialized cultures and what it is used for today.

Answer 11

Snakeroot has been used by indigenous cultures in india and nepal to treat insanity, epilepsy, insomnia and anxiety (also used to treat snakebites which wasn’t effective) Also used for poison arrows.
Snakeroot used by Ghandi in meditation
Treats: hypertension, paranoia, schizophrenia, insomnia
Reserpine- chemical compounds analyzed in 1940s to determine the source of the sedative effect and synthesized to make medicine. Originally extracted from root of Rauvolfia serpentina

Question 12

Ethnobotany

Answer 12

study of indigenous people and their use of plants

Question 13

Describe some differences in plant use and awareness by indigenous cultures compared to industrialized societies.

Answer 13

Indigenous cultures know a lot more than we do/ can transfer knowledge (new discoveries). They understand connection between production and consumption
Indigenous cultures used the inner fruit of the gourd to eat and then hollow it out for storage
Carnivorous plant digest insects (butterwort)
Make yogurt-like drink (leaves of butterwort)
They care about fragile ecosystems
Cultures may be vulnerable to economic & environmental changes

Question 14

indigenous peoples

Answer 14

people in non-industrialized societies in their native lands practicing their traditional practices.

Question 15

Describe the ecological disparity between plants and animals, especially how food is acquired.

Answer 15

Animals can move away for survival. Plants cannot so they produce chemicals for protection. If they can’t produce these chemicals they might die out. Plants can be harvested more readily.
Plants produce food while animals consume food
Plants transform gases (co2) and inorganic nutrients (N,P) into living tissue
Plants produce chemical compoins

Question 16

Explain how plant-animal interactions lead to useful products for humans.

Answer 16

plants put energy into making secondary compounds to protect themselves or attract animals
these chemicals can be used for medicine

Question 17

Describe the types of evidence that inform us about historical use of plants and plant products.

Answer 17

Scientific literature/ historical texts
temples/ religious buildings
Preserved containers/ pots, tools, cosmetics, medicine, etc.
pictures/ paintings
Starch granules on bone cueva de los corrales, argentina (2000-1500 years BP)
use of plants (evidence includes fossils, pollen, charcoal, murals, etc)
Burials- present-day Israel and Palestine, family buried on a bed of flowers.
feces
starch granules on bones

Question 18

Describe where and how Richard Schultes, an ethnobotanist, studied the plant use of indigenous cultures.

Answer 18

Father of ethnobotony
Spent 12 years cataloguing rubber trees and identifying medicinal and psychoactive plants in the Amazon (1950s)
When and lived with the people to understand them

Question 19

Distinguish angiosperms from gymnosperms, focusing on whether seeds are protected.

Answer 19

gymnosperms= conifers. Include evergreens, spruce, pine trees, etc. They have seeds instead of spores that are uncovered or naked.
Angiosperms arise after gymnosperms with mammals. Flowery plants. Have seeds but their seeds are covered.

Question 20

Describe the contribution of roots to plant growth and health.

Answer 20

roots absorb both water and nutrients from the soil to help with plant growth.
Symbiotic relationships between plants and fungi, bacteria and plants.
Clusia lorentensis
Strangler fig (Moraceae family)- seed lands in the canopy of the tree, grows around the tree and strangles it.
Clusiaceae family- roots grow from the top
Orchids- have aerial roots, grow on other plants (epiphytic) and may absorb moisture from the air
Root buttresses- Evolutionary adaptation in some environments- spread out from the tree trunk providing stability for shallow-rooted trees.
Roots sometimes modified to store starch (food storage)

Question 21

List the components of the shoot system and describe the contribution of each to plant growth (you do not need to know all the technical terms unless I specifically mention them).

Answer 21

The shoot system is the part of the plant that comes up from the ground and holds the plant toward the sun (leaves and stems)
Asparagus is a stem
Support structure (woody or herbaceous)
Conduction of water and nutrients from roots
Conduction of photosynthates (sugar products) around the plant
Modification= some species:
Photosynthesis (cactus) green part in the center
Water storage (cactus)
Herbivore deterrence
Asexual reproduction
Climbing (linked to bean plant competition)

Question 22

Describe some modifications of leaves and name *examples of useful products from leaf modification.

Answer 22

Leaves control photosynthesis and store sugars
In some species, they are herbivore deterrence
Ex: cactus has modified leaves for this= spines
Succulents store water (ex: Aloe vera)
Contains oil and other secondary compounds
Tendrils for attaching to substrates (pea plant)
Attraction of pollinators by resembling flowers (poinsettia)
Store carbohydrates underground (onion= modified leaves aka balbs)
Carnivorous habits (ex: pitcher plants) to absorb nutrients

Question 23

Describe how tubers and rhizomes are modified stems and name *examples of useful products from each.

Answer 23

Underground stems - asexual reproduction (no sex)
Tuber: spherical, storage (potato, cassava)
Rhizome: horizontal (ginger, bamboo, irises)
How do we know they are stems? Stems have nodes (“eyes”), internodes, axillary buds
Tuber has nodes
Runner/ stolon- aboveground stems that run along the grounds (mint, strawberries) (we eat the leaves and the fruits)

Question 24

Explain why turmeric is a valued plant and know which part is used.

Answer 24

Rhizome (stem)
Active ingredient is curcumin, a natural plant chemical
Medicinal purposes
Dye- food, textiles
Food- curry ingredient
Cultural- good luck and fertility

Question 25

Know the four main parts of a flower so that you can label a diagram of a complete flower.

Answer 25

Pollen-producing cones and egg-producing cones (sperm in the pollen and eggs in the ovary)
Seed develops from an ovule inside an ovary (enclosed= angiosperm)
Complete flowers have 4 whorls: stamen (male flower/ pollen producing part), pistil (female flower), petal, sepal (little green leaf part underneath)
Stamen flowers are male flowers and pistil flowers are female flowers

Question 26

Classify a flower as perfect or imperfect based on an image or description.

Answer 26

Perfect flowers have both male and female parts (produce pollen and eggs)
Imperfect flower had either male part or female part (not both)
Hermaphrodite has only perfect flowers (also called bisexual flowers I looked it up)
Mulberries are fleshy sepals, mostly
Hibiscus petals are sepals and are used in hibiscus tea

Question 27

Classify a plant as monoecious or dioecious, based on a description or image.

Answer 27

Monoecious plants have both male and female flowers on the same plant/ one house (imperfect)
Begonias
Dioecious has two different houses. Only one flower (male or female/ imperfect)

Question 28

Describe the features of seeds that make them useful to humans.

Answer 28

Seeds are valuable food resource (have protein, fiber, minerals, vitamins, and starches)
Large quantities
Harvesting
Sustaining for plants
Gingko biloba trees are gymnosperms with female trees producing seeds that smell bad as they decay

Question 29

Define palynology and describe how it is used.

Answer 29

palynology= study of pollen
Evidence for ancient plant use- pollen builds up in sediment in wet areas
Preserved feces tells us what the extinct animal ate
pollen can be preserved leaving a record of past vegetation (fossilized)

Question 30

List plant strategies that attract pollinators* and how frequently animals are needed for pollination.

Answer 30

Pollination is when the pollen lands on the stigma (not the same as fertilization)
Shaped specifically to be accessible to butterflies (ex: Turk’s cap lily)
Flies like the rotting mat smell of a carrion flower
Nectar guide in UV range
Scarlet bee balm color attracts hummingbirds (color red). Beak long enough to reach nectar.
Fruity smell of saguaro cactus flowers and white flowers attracts bats
Nectar!!!
Dutchman’s pipe traps fly pollinators
mimicry/ deception (ex: orchids look like mates)

Question 31

Describe ways to protect pollinators and explain why this is needed.

Answer 31

Black and white ruffed lemur (one of the largest pollinators)
Same issues that face bees can also affect other pollinators
Avoid using pesticides
Protect/ provide habitat for pollinators

Question 32

Know the plant species name for marijuana and hemp, as given in class and explain the debate over whether there are separate species or subspecies.

Answer 32

Cannabis Sativa L (name of marijuana and hemp) - most common taxonomic name used
Disagreement over whether they are the same species (even though they are the same plant?)

Question 33

Explain the history of federal regulations on the use of Cannabis in the U.S. Know laws discussed in class.

Answer 33

Massachusetts (1914) was the first of 48 states to criminalize it
1937- Marihuana Tax Act- taxed for medicinal and non-medicinal uses
Physicians opposed it because of the extra paperwork and the tax
Concern that it would limit research on medical benefits
1951- Boggs Act- included Cannabis as a narcotic with opiates and mandatory minimum sentencing
1970- Controlled Substances Act- categorized as a schedule I Drug
1978- Compassionate Use Investigational New Drug problem established
Patients could be prescribed it on a case-by-case basis (13 patients initially)
1992- closed to all but existing patients under the program

Question 34

Distinguish between Hemp and Marijuana according to federal regulations.

Answer 34

Industrial hemp is “the plant Cannabis sativa L. and any part of such plant, whether growing or not, with a delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentration of not more than 0.3% on a dry weight basis”
Prior to 2014 Farm Bill, the US hemp market depended on imports but after, state agriculture departments could cultivate hemp in pilot projects.
After 2018- amendment passed to Farm Bill, the definition was “the plant Cannabis sativa L (…) included the seeds thereof and all derivatives, extracts, cannabinoids, isomers, acids, salts, and salts or isomers, whether growing or not…”
No more than 0.3% THC in any part of the plant
Legally decassified hemp as a Schedule I drug
Marijuana includes all parts of C. Sativa that is over 0.3%

Question 35

Describe economic uses of hemp and the plant parts that are used for each.

Answer 35

Stem is used for the Hemp (source of fiber from stems)
Naturally dioecious
Breeding has produced some monoecious varieties for edible seeds and seed oil
Female flowers have more CBD
Wind pollinated (but managers remove male plants or buy “feminized” seeds)
Hemp fibers used in clothes, Used for textiles/ paper, pharmaceuticals, food (grain, seed oil, seeds), cosmetics, biofuels etc
2014 Farm Bill made it easier to grow for industrial uses
Also a source of cannabidiol (CBD) and is the primary economic resource today

Question 36

Distinguish Hemp Seed Oil from CBD oil.

Answer 36

CBD levels are higher than THC in Hemp
2018 Farm Bill made CBD legal
Both have the same starting module
Oil for CBD is extracted from the female flower, stem, and leaf material, not the seed so pollination is prevented (extracted from industrial hemp)
Hemp seed oil has no CBD- a good source of fatty acid

Hemp oil or CBD oil are products manufactured from
extracts of industrial hemp (i.e., low-THC cannabis cultivars), whereas hemp seed oil is an edible
fatty oil that is essentially cannabinoid-free

Question 37

Distinguish between CBD(cannabinol) and THC and from which parts of the plant they are mainly derived.

Answer 37

Cannabis has 20 chromosomes
CBD and THC have the same starting molecule and same gene
Johnson & Wallace grew plants from seeds purchased from suppliers representing 22 accessions (strains) of industrial hemp
Some accessions were from different suppliers using the same name (strain)

google: CBD is often sold as an oil, is not psychoactive, and has certain medicinal properties. THC, on the other hand, is the main psychoactive chemical in marijuana.
bothcome from the leaves and flower parts

Question 38

Discuss how reliable are classifications of plants by strain and the stated THC-CBD content.

Answer 38

Not very reliable. It can be difficult to guess the THC-CBD content based on the plant.

Question 39

Discuss how artificial selection has changed the chemical composition in Cannabis sativa, based on intended uses, compared to the wild plants. Describe examples from the reading and class, including effects on intended modern uses.

Answer 39

Humans breed plants or animals for certain desirable traits (larger size of a food resource, more fibers, etc)
Evidence from palynology, fossils, ancient texts, genetics
Cannabis sativa has been bred to have higher THC content for drug use (greater psychoactive- hallicinogen effect)
The industrial hemp from of C. sativa has been bred to have higher CBD levels for the dietary supplement market and medical purposes [1-2% to 20-30%]
How does raising THC levels benefit humans?
Trial showed that administering doses of higher THC didn’t have a significant difference
Increased appetite with higher THC
Greater feelings of anxiety and dejection
THC appears to decrease anxiety at lower doses and increase it at higher
CBD appears to increase anxiety at all doses

Question 40

Discuss limitations on research for medical use of marijuana.

Answer 40

Must obtain a license to work with a Schedule 1 drug
Everything must be destroyed when it’s finished
Research focuses on mental health
difficulty in transportation

Question 41

Describe cannabinoids, endocannabinoids, and the endocannabinoid system (ECS). Explain general effects of the ECS and its components on the nervous and immune systems.

Answer 41

Endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids) that we and other mammals produce
Cannabinoid receptors on our cells in the central and peripheral nervous system
Enzymes responsible for synthesis and degradation of our endocannabinoids
ECS regulates sleep, mood, appetite, movement, body temp, pain, immune functions and fertility
Endogenous cannabinoids bind to our receptors (occur in smaller quantities than THC)
THC can also bind to the cannabinoid receptors on our cells
Stimulating the ECS might reduce systems of auto-immune diseases (when our body attacks its own cells, thinking it is a pathogen)
Reduces inflammation that occurs when the immune system is stimulated to fight infections or in an auto-immune response (e.g. Krohn’s disease)
EB2 was the first receptors identified in the brain; most abundant expression is on immune cells

Question 42

Name conditions that are being treated with CBD and the know the name of the first drug approved by the FDA.

Answer 42

Epilepsy- back when it was a Schedule 1 drug (before the Farm Bill came out)
Dravet syndrome- genetic disease; symptoms being the first year of life with 100’s of seizures daily and a shorter life span
Lennoc- gestalt syndrome- another disease with severe seizures; usually beginning at age 4
Tuberous sclerosis complex- benign tumor formation in the brain and other areas of the body (genetic disease)
Epidiolex is purified CBD in sesame oil with a reliable dosage and it is approved for the treatment of these conditions

Question 43

Name conditions for which there is approval to treat with THC and recognize the medications.

Answer 43

Treatment of chemotherapy-related side effects for cancer
Appetite stimulation in AIDS patients with wasting syndrome
Studies demonstrate positive effects on appetite (up to 5 months) but not weight gain
Affects the area of the brain that controls nausea, vomiting, and appetite (the ECS)
Includes dronabinol (Marinol) and nabilone (Cesamet)
Synthetic for of THC in sesame oil (does not dissolve in water)
No cannabinoids are approved to treat cancer (just side effects of chemo)
Dronabinol (the drug that helps treat these conditions) has similar psychoactive effects to smoking marijuana (approved in 1985 to treat chemo)
Other conditions: pain reductions, neurological pain associated with multiple sclerosis and HIV and injury, sleep apnea, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s disease, disturbed behavior in Alzheimer’s disease, and Tourettes.

Question 44

Describe the use of Nabiximols and whether it is currently FDA approved in the U.S.

Answer 44

a herbal preparation containing a defined quantity of specific cannabinoids
Not yet approved in the U.S. by FDA but in clinical trials (human testing)
Treatment approved in Canada and most European countries for:
Multiple sclerosis (MS)- relief from pain, muscle spasms, stiffness and reduced mobility
Advanced cancer- pain relief

Question 45

Discuss benefits of developing drug formulations over using the whole plant.

Answer 45

medications that use purified chemicals derived from or based on those in the marijuana plant have proven to be more promising than using the whole plant.
patients won’t feel the bad side effects of the THC. It is difficult to develop a product with an accurate depiction of the chemicals used since the plant might have hundreds of unknown active chemicals.
side effects similar to smoking (cognitive impairment)

Question 46

paleobotany vs paleoethnobotany

Answer 46

Paleobotany- study of ancient plants
Fossils
Paleoethnobotany- study of ancient cultures