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exam 4 neuro Flashcards

1
Q

What is sound?

A

audible variations in air pressure that travel through space (waves) Air pressure is the density of air molecules

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2
Q

frequency

A

Number of waves that pass by in 1 second

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3
Q

What does frequency determine?

A

Pitch

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4
Q

Frequency is measured in:

A

Hertz

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5
Q

Amplitude

A

Height of the wave. Difference in pressure between the peak and the atmospheric pressure

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6
Q

What is the first processing step in the auditory system?

A

Frequency decomposition

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7
Q

Frequency decomposition

A

Identifies the contribution of different sound frequencies

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8
Q

What structures after the cochlear nucleus receive bilateral input?

A

All structures

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9
Q

What does the cochlea do?

A

Transforms sound waves into action potentials

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10
Q

Auditory Pathway

A

Cochlea -> cochlear nucleus -> superior olive -> inferior colliculus -> medial geniculate body -> auditory cortex

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11
Q

What do sound waves do in the cochlea

A

Sound waves move fluid in the cochlea, which bend the basilar membrane and the hair cells that are attached to it

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12
Q

What happens when hair cells bend

A

They release neurotransmitters that activate the spiral ganglion cells, whose axons make up the auditory nerve

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13
Q

The Basilar Membrane carries out

A

Frequency decomposition

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14
Q

The basilar membrane is __ flexible at the base and ___ flexible at the apex

A

Less
More

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15
Q

Regions of the membrane near the base are deflected more by ___ frequency sounds and regions near the apex are deflected more by ___ frequency sounds

A

High
Low

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16
Q

The signals from the hair cells that are sent to the spiral ganglion cells are

A

Frequency specific

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17
Q

The cochlea carries out frequency decomposition on sounds. Which means:

A

That the cochlea transforms complex sounds into brain signals for the different frequencies that make up the sound.

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18
Q

Basilar membrane has a tonotopic organization, which means:

A

That adjacent frequencies are presented on adjacent locations on the membrane

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19
Q

What does tonotopic organization mean for spiral ganglion cells?

A

Means that the cells are tuned to specific frequencies, meaning they respond strongly to some frequencies but not to others

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20
Q

What is a cue for sounds horizontal location?

A

Interaural time difference: the difference in time between when a sound reaches one ear and the other

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21
Q

Which neurons in the auditory pathway are tuned to specific interaural time differences?

A

Superior olive

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22
Q

What do auditory illusions reveal?

A

Reveals some of the ways in which the brain makes guesses when interpreting sensory inputs. The auditory system carries out inferences about the likely grouping of stimulus features and the likely identity of auditory objects

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23
Q

Gestalt principle of continuity

A

The auditory system assumes that interrupted sounds come from the same source if there is some explanation for the interruption -> interrupted segments are grouped into one object

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24
Q

Top Down processing of sound

A

Object knowledge -> grouping (frequency, intensity, location) -> Decompostion (sound)

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25
Music is processed where?
Dorsal medial temporal lobe (mostly on the right)
26
Language is processed where?
Ventral lateral temporal lobe
27
What is a cycle
One complete vibration of a wave
28
What are simple and complex sound waves?
Simple sound waves are pure tones (single frequency) Complex waves consist of multiple frequencies
29
What is wave decomposition
The brains ability to break down complex sounds into their frequency components
30
What are the challenges faced by the auditory system
Sensory info is noisy and incomplete Brain must group and interpret overlapping sounds Requires top down inferences to resolve ambiguities
31
What is meant by the terms "Top down" and "bottoms-up" processing
Bottom up: Data driven, sensory input leads to perception Top Down: perception is influenced by knowledge, expectations, and context
32
What does it mean that the brain is a predictive engine?
The brain constantly makes guesses to interpret noisy/incomplete data
33
What is filling in?
When the brain completed missing sensory info
34
Functions of the what and where pathways in sound processing?
What (ventral): Identifies sound source (A1 -> STG ->IFG) Where (Dorsal): locates sound (A1 -> STG -> SPL -> SFG)
35
How is intensity neurally represented
Represented by firing rate of neurons
36
Examples of top-down contributions to prception
Prior knowledge influences interpretation (e.g. speech heard despite missing sounds) `
37
Upper level of action representations:
Abstract action planning which may be effector dependent (e.g. can be executed by different limbs)
38
Lower level of action representations
Motor execution that is effector specific
39
Why are action representations hierarchically organized?
Allows for both flexibility and precision
40
Topographic organization for Primary Motor Cortex
Motor planning for nearby effectors is represented in nearby cortical areas (the motor homunculus)
41
Neural Magnification of Primary Motor cortex
Effectors with finer motor control are represented by larger areas of cortex
42
What is impaired when there is damage to M1
Paralysis to the contralesional limb because neurons in motor cortex control the contralateral side of the body
43
Spinal cords
Motor execution (control of muscle fibers) Control from higher levels of motor neurons: Innervate muscle fibers -> extension/flexion
44
Tuning curves for motor neurons
Each neuron has a tuning curve for reaching direction - Preferred direction (tuning) - fairly broad tuning
45
How is movement direction for a specific movement act represented?
Typically many neurons are active Actual movements can be very precise although each neruon has fairly broad tuning.
46
Population coding
Pattern of firing across the entire population of directionally sensitive cells codes a specific movement direction, with all cells contributing to the representation
47
How to combine the responses of a population? The vector hypothesis
1. Each cells contribution can be thought of as a vector: - direction (cells preferred direction) - length (strength of response) 2. For every movement, every cell votes for movement in its preferred direction 3. Firing rate determines the strength of a cells vote for its preferred direction - Baseline firing: no vote - above baseline: vote for preferred direction - below baseline: vote for opposite direction 4. Movement direction is coded by the combined votes The sum of single cell vectors is the population vector
48
Does these population codes represent movement planning or execution?
The neurons encode intended movement direction rather than muscle movements themselves
49
What are the three key components of BCI
1. Robotic arm 2. Neural Recordings 3.Extraction Module
50
What are the three steps of the Extraction Module
Step 1: Calibration: identify the tuning properties of the individual neurons/groups before training/testing step 2: During each trial with the robotic arm, the module extracts a movement endpoint every 30 msec using a population vector algorithm Step 3: Send the movement endpoint signal to the Robotic control module that converts the movement endpoints to 4 joint positions and aperture control
51
Executive Functions
Control and organize other cognitive processes so that we can successfully carry out complex, goal oriented behaviors
52
Why is Phineas Gage important
Early finding of cerebral localization Among the first findings pointing to a particular brain region involved in determining one's personality Demonstrated a link btw the frontal lobe and the high level control of behavior
53
Executive functions are associated mostly with
The frontal and Parietal lobes
54
Signs and Symptoms of CTE (Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy)
- Difficulty thinking -impulsive behavior -Depression or apathy - Short term memory loss - Difficulty planning and carrying out tasks -emotional instability -substance abuse -suicidal thoughts/behavior
55
Executive functions are associated strongly with
Working Memory - Holding info in memory while planning or waiting to perform a behavior - holding multiple ideas in mind while reasoning or making decisions - flexibly controlling and manipulating the contents of memory
56
Perservation
Repeating a choice or behavior that was previously correct (even though it is not now) (e.g., continuing to sort cards by color after the rule changes to shape in the WCST). It reflects difficulty with shifting and cognitive flexibility.
57
The ____ has a domain general role in selecting behaviorally relevant information from memory among competing alternatives
The Left inferior frontal gyrus
58
What is inhibitory control
Inhibiting unwanted thoughts, actions, and emotions
59
____ gyrus is strongly activated during response inhibition
Right inferior frontal Gyrus
60
What part of the brain is activated when subjects make mistakes?
Anterior Cingulate Cortex
61
ACC responds both to error trials and high conflict trials. What does this suggest
Suggests ACC is involved in detecting errors and monitoring behavioral conflicts in which errors are more likely
62
Multiple Demand System
A domain general system in frontal and parietal cortex that supports complex reasoning, problem solving, and planning
63
Fluid Intelligence:
The ability to solve novel problems through general reasoning and logic (as opposed to retrieving learned facts)
64
MD System is located in the
Frontal and Parietal cortex
65
What part of the brain deal with error detection and monitoring
ACC (Anterior Cingulate cortex
65
What are the 5 main executive functions
1. Task Switching: flexibly shifting between tasks or mental sets 2. Selection: Choosing relevant info and ignoring irrelevant stimuli 3. Monitoring: checking performance and outcomes against goals or expectations 4. Inhibitory control: suppressing automatic or unwanted responses 5. Error detection: noticing mistakes and adjusting behavior accordingly
66
What part of the brain deals with Task Switching
Prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex
67
What part of the brain deals with selection
Left inferior frontal gyrus
68
What part of the brain deals with inhibitory control
Right inferior frontal gyrus
69
Prepotent Responses
Are automatic or dominant responses that are strongly triggered by stimuli. Executive control is often needed to inhibit these responses when they are inappropriate for the context (stroop task)
70
How does executive functioning overlap with attention
Necessary for selecting relevant stimuli and maintaining task focus Often guides top down attention and manages memory content
71
Experimental task that is used to examine task switching:
Wisconsin Card Sorting test - requires adjusting to changing rule
72
Experimental task that is used to examine selection
Picture naming tasks with high vs low name agreement
73
Experimental task that is used to examine monitoring
Error related brain activity tasks like the AX-CPT
74
Experimental task that is used to examine inhibitory control
Response inhibition tasks using target lure setups
75
Experimental task that is used to examine error detection
Continuous performance tests
76
What does it mean to say that the motor system is hierarchically organized? What is evidence of this?
The motor system is hierarchically organized with upper levels responsible for abstract planning and lower levels are responsible for specific motor executive Evidence includes our ability to perform the same action using different body parts, showing that planning is seperate from executions
77
What is the major contribution of M1?
Executes voluntary movements via direct control of muscles
78
Major contribution of SMA and Premotor Cortex
Involves in planning complex, sequential action
79
Major contribution of Spinal cord and Motor neurons
Relay commands from brain to muscles and coordinate reflexes
80
How did Georgopoulos determine that neurons in motor cortex have a preferred direction of movement?
By recording single unit neural activity while monkeys performed reaching movements in various directions He observed that each neuron responded most strongly to a specific direction
81
What does it mean for a neuron to have broad vs sharp tuning
Broad: neurons respond to a wide range of directions, but has a preferred one Sharp: neurons responds only to a narrow range near its preferred direction
82
What is distributed representation and how does it relate to population coding
A distributed representation means info is encoded across a population of neurons Population coding uses the combined activity of many broadly tuned neurons to specify movement directions
83
Understand what it means to say that each neuron’s contribution to a particular movement direction can be thought of as a vector with direction and size of response.
Each neuron “votes” for movement in its preferred direction. The vector direction represents its preferred direction, and the magnitude reflects the neuron’s firing rate during that movement.
84
What are 2 major training stages in the Velliste et al study?
Stage 1 : Joystick control: monkeys learned to use a joystick to control a robot arm for feeding Stage 2: cortical control: Monkeys' arms were restrained and they controlled the robotic arm directly through cortical activity
85
In the Velliste et al. study, where is cortical information collected from? What specific information is extracted from the neurons?
Information was collected from the arm region of M1 (right hemisphere). Neural signals representing preferred directions and firing rates (population vectors) were extracted.
86
How are population vectors used? What are the 4 dimensions?
Population vectors represent the intended movement in 3D space (x, y, z) plus gripper control (open/close), enabling 4-dimensional control of the robotic arm.
87

Cog Neuropsych (4 decks)

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