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A&P I - Grace College > Exam 4 Nervous System > Flashcards

Exam 4 Nervous System Flashcards

1
Q

Synapse

A

Site of communication between two or more neurons or between a neuron and another cell

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2
Q

Types of Synapses

A

Electrical and Chemical

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3
Q

Electrical Synapse

A

Structure - Gap junction formed between pre and post synaptic membranes. Protein pores permit ions to pass between cells.

Function - Membrane potential passes from cell to cell

Examples - Intercalated discs in cardiac muscle or gap junctions in smooth muscle

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4
Q

Presynaptic Membrane

A

The neuron that passes the impulse to another neuron

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5
Q

Postsynaptic Membrane

A

The neuron receiving the signal or impulse

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6
Q

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

A

Cause depolarization and promote the generation of action potentials

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7
Q

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

A

Causes hyperpolarization and suppress the generation of action potentials

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8
Q

Chemical Synapse

A

All synapses and communications between neurons involve neurotransmitters

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9
Q

Chemical Conduction at the Synapse

A

There is a space (synaptic cleft) between the axon terminal and the adjacent neuron. As the action potential reaches the end of the axon, a chemical is released that travels across the synaptic cleft to the next neuron to alter its electric potential

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10
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Primarily direct, through binding to chemically gated channels

In the PNS - Plays a role in skeletal muscle movement, as well as in the regulation of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle

In the CNS - Involved in learning, memory, and mood

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11
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Widely distributed in the brain and in portions of the ANS

Typically has an excitatory, depolarizing effect on the postsynaptic membrane, but the mechanism is quite distinct from that of ACh

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12
Q

Dopamine

A

Has both inhibitory and excitatory areas of the brain

Inhibitory effects has an important role in our precise control of movements

Excitatory effects - Cocaine inhibits the removal of dopamine from synapses in specific areas of the brain. The resulting rise in dopamine concentrations at these synapses is responsible for the “high” experienced by cocaine users

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13
Q

Serotonin

A

Inadequate serotonin production can have effects on a person’s attention and emotional states and may be responsible for many cases of severe chronic depression.

Antidepressant drugs inhibit the reabsorption of serotonin by axon terminals. This inhibition leads to increased serotonin concentrations at synapses, and over time, the increase may relieve the symptoms of depression.

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14
Q

GABA

A

Gamma-aminobutryic acid

Has an inhibitory effect; GABA release in the CNS appears to reduce anxiety and some antianxiety drugs work by enhancing this effect.

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15
Q

Neuromodulators

A

A compound released by a neuron that affects the sensitivity of another neuron to a neurotransmitter

Examples: Opoids such as endorphins

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16
Q

Actions of a Neuromodulator

A

Alters rate of release of neuromodulators

Bind receptor on neuron and activate enzymes

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17
Q

EPSP

A

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential

Graded depolarization caused by the arrival of a neurotransmitter at the postsynaptic membrane

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18
Q

IPSP

A

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential

Graded hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane. the neuron is said to be inhibited because a larger than usual depolarizing stimulus is needed to bring the membrane potential to threshold.

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19
Q

Postsynaptic Potentials

A

Graded potentials that develop in the postsynaptic membrane in response to a neurotransmitter

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20
Q

Temporal Summation

A

The addition of stimuli occurring in rapid succession t a single synapse that is active repeatedly.

This form of summation can be likened to using a bucket to fill up a bathtub: You can’t fill the tub with a single bucket of water but you will fill it eventually if you keep repeating the process.

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21
Q

Spatial Summation

A

Occurs when simultaneous stimuli applied at different locations have a cumulative effect on the membrane potential.

You could fill a bathtub immediately if 50 friends emptied their bucket into it all at the same time.

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22
Q

Presynaptic Inhibition

A

Inhibition that reduces the amount of neurotransmitter released when the action potential arrives there, and thus reduces the effects of synaptic activity on the postsynaptic membrane.

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23
Q

Presynaptic Facilitation

A

Activity at an axoaxonic synapse increases the amount of neurotransmitter released when an action potential arrives at the axon terminal.

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24
Q

Principles of Synaptic Transmission

A
  • Unidirectional
  • Susceptible to fatigue
  • Susceptible to drugs and medications
  • Oxygen consumption
  • Summation occurs
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25
Q

Neuronal Pools

A

Functional groups of neurons that integrate incoming information from receptors which then forward processed information to other designations

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26
Q

Diverging Circuit

A

Spread of information from one neuron to several neurons, or from one pool to multiple pools

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27
Q

Converging Circuit

A

A mechanism for providing input to a single neuron from multiple sources

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28
Q

Serial Processing

A

Information is relayed in a stepwise fashion, from one neuron to another or from one neuronal pool to the next

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29
Q

Parallel Processing

A

Occurs when several neurons or neuronal pools process the same information simultaneously

Divergence must take place before parallel processing can occur

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30
Q

Reverberation

A

Collateral branches of axons somewhere along the circuit extend back toward the source of an impulse and further stimulate the presynaptic neurons.

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31
Q

Length of Spinal Cord

A

Approximately 45 cm (18 in) long, with a maximum width of roughly 14 mm.

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32
Q

Segments of the Spinal Cord

A
  • Cervical enlargement

- Lumbar enlargement

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33
Q

Cervical Enlargement

A

Supplies nerves to the shoulder and upper limbs

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34
Q

Lumbar Enlargement

A

Provides innervation to structures of the pelvis and lower limbs

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35
Q

Conus medularis

A

Inferior to the lumbar enlargement the spinal cord becomes tapered and conical.

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36
Q

Dorsal Root Ganglia

A

Located near the spinal cord, every spinal cord segment is associated with a pair of these; these ganglia contain the cell bodies of sensory neurons

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37
Q

Dorsal Root

A

Axons of the neurons form the dorsal root, which bring sensory information into the spinal cord

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38
Q

Ventral Roots

A

A pair of ventral roots contains the axons of motor neurons that extend into the periphery to control somatic and visceral effectors.

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39
Q

Spinal Nerve

A

Distal to each dorsal root ganglion

The sensory and motor root are bound together into a single spinal nerve

Contain both afferent and efferent fibers

31 pairs of spinal nerves

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40
Q

Gray Matter

A

Integrates information and initiates commands

Dominated by the cell bodies of neurons, neuroglia, and unmyelinated axons

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41
Q

White Matter

A

Carries information from place to place

Contains large numbers of myelinated and unmyelinated axons

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42
Q

Gray Commisures

A

Posterior to and anterior to the central canal contain axons that cross from one side of the cord to the other before they reach an area in the gray matter

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43
Q

Anterior Gray Horns

A

Contain somatic motor nuclei

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44
Q

Posterior Gray Horns

A

Contain somatic and visceral sensory nuclei

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45
Q

Lateral Gray Horns

A

Located only in the throacic and lumber segments and contain visceral motor nuclei

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46
Q

Anterior White Columns

A

Lie between the anterior gray horns and the anterior median fissure

Interconnected by the anterior white commissure

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47
Q

Anterior White Commissure

A

A region where axons can cross from one side of the spinal cord to the other

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48
Q

Lateral White Columns

A

The white matter between the anterior and posterior columns on each side makes up the lateral white column

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49
Q

Posterior White Columns

A

Lie between the posterior gray horns and the posterior median sulcus

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50
Q

Spinal Meninges

A

A series of specialized membranes surrounding the spinal cord, provide the necessary physical stability and shock absorption

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51
Q

Dura Mater

A

Layer that forms the outermot covering of the spinal cord

Contains dense collagent fibers that are oriented along the longitudinal axis of the cord

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52
Q

Arachnoid Mater

A

The middle meningeal layer

The inner surface of the dura mater and the outer surface of the arachnoid mater are covered by simple squamous epithelia

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53
Q

Pia Mater

A

The innermost meningeal layer

Consists of a meshwork of elastic and collagen fibers that is firmly bound to the underlying neural tissue

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54
Q

Epineurium

A

Outermost layer of the nerve

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55
Q

Perineurium

A

Middle layer of the nerve

Separate adjacent bundles of nerve fibers in a peripheral nerve

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56
Q

Endoneurium

A

Inner layer of the nerve

Surround individual nerve fibers

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57
Q

Plexuses

A

Interlacing of nerves from which other nerves arise; all white matter

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58
Q

Cervical Plexus

A

C1-C5; Innervates the muscles of the neck and extend into the thoracic cavity

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59
Q

Brachial Plexus

A

C5-T1; Innervates the pectoral girdle and upper limb

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60
Q

Lumbar Plexus

A

L1-L4; Primarily deals with movement of the hip or upper leg

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61
Q

Sacral Plexus

A

L4-S4

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62
Q

Reflex Arc

A

Impulse arrives at the cell and activates the receptor. The receptor activates the sensory neuron which carries information to the CNS. The integrator integrates information for the motor neuron to carry. The motor neuron tells the neurotransmitters to release. The peripheral effector responds to this release which, for example, would pull your hand away from the tack.

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63
Q

Innate Reflex

A

Results from the connections that form between neurons during development

Genetically determined

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64
Q

Acquired Reflex

A

Learned motor patterns; developed

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65
Q

Somatic Reflex

A

Control skeletal muscle contractions

Include superficial and stretch reflexes

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66
Q

Visceral Reflex

A

Control actions of smooth and cardiac muscles, glands, and adipose tissue

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67
Q

Monosynaptic Reflex

A

One synapse; involve the simplest reflex arc

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68
Q

Polysynaptic Reflex

A

Multiple synapses; longer delay between stimulus and response which has to do with the amount of synapses involved

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69
Q

Example of Stretch Reflex

A

Automatically regulates skeletal muscle length

“Knee-jerk” or patellar reflex - when a physician taps your patellar tendon with a reflex hammer, receptors in the quadriceps muscle are stretched. The distortion of the receptors in turn stimulates sensory neurons that extend into the spinal cord, where they synapse on motor neurons that control the motor units in the stretched muscle. This leads to a reflexive contraction of the stretched muscle that extends the knee in a brief kick.

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70
Q

Tendon Reflex

A

Monitors the external tension produced during a muscular contraction and prevents tearing or breaking of the tendons.

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71
Q

Withdrawal Reflex

A

Move affected parts of the body away from a stimulus. Painful stimuli trigger the strongest withdrawal reflexes, but these reflexes are sometimes initiated by the stimulation of touch receptors or pressure receptors.

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72
Q

Crossed Extensor Reflex

A

Involves a contralateral reflex arc because the motor response occurs on the side opposite the stimulus

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73
Q

Reinforcement

A

An enhancement of spinal reflexes by stimulating excitatory neurons in brain stem or spinal cord creating EPSPs at reflex motor neurons facilitating postsynaptic neurons

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74
Q

Spinal Shock

A

Loss of all neurological activity below the level of injury

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75
Q

Decerebrate Rigidity

A

Caused by extensive damage to the brainstem; There is head extension with body arched, the arms are extended, adducted, and pronated; the legs are extended with plantar flexion of the feet

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76
Q

Ventricular System of the Brain

A

Set of communicating cavities within the brain; these structures are responsible for the production, transport and removal of cerebrospinal fluid.

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77
Q

Lateral Ventricles

A

Located within their respective hemisphere of the cerebrum; they have horns which project into the frontal, occipital, and temporal lobes. The volume of the lateral ventricles increases with age.

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78
Q

Third Ventricle

A

The lateral ventricles are connected to the third ventricle by the foramen of Monro.

Situated in between the right and left thalamus. The anterior surface of the ventricle contains two protrusions - supraoptic recess and infundibuar recess)

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79
Q

Fourth Ventricle

A

Receives CSF from the third ventricle via the cerebral aqueduct; it lies within the brainstem, at the junction between the pons and medulla oblongata.

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80
Q

Function of Cerebrospinal Fluid

A

Protection - acts as a cushion of the brain

Buoyancy - net weight of brain is reduced to 25 grams and it prevents excessive pressure on the base of the brain

Transports nutrients, chemical messengers, and waste products.

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81
Q

Formation of Cerebrospinal Fluid

A

Choroid plexus - an area within each ventricle that produces CSF

Produced from arterial blood by the choroid plexuses of the lateral and fourth ventricles by a combined process of diffusion, pinocytosis, and active transfer. A small amount is also produced by ependymal cells.

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82
Q

Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid

A

Choroid plexus secretes the CSF into the lateral ventricle, then it travels to the third ventricle by the intraventricle foramen. From there it moves to the 4th ventricle through the cerebral aqueduct.

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83
Q

Medulla Oblongata Location

A

Lowest part of the brainstem

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84
Q

Medulla Oblongata Functions

A

Carries out and regulates life sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate.

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85
Q

Reticular Formation

A

Loosely organized mass of gray matter that contains embedded nuclei. It extends from the medulla oblongata to the midbrain.

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86
Q

Reflex Centers

A

Receive inputs from cranial nerves, the cerebral cortex, and the brain stem.

2 Major Groups - cardiovascular centers and respiratory rhythmicity centers

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87
Q

Cardiovascular Centers

A

Adjust heart rate, the strength of cardiac contraction, and the flow of blood through peripheral tissues

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88
Q

Respiratory Rhythmicity Centers

A

Set the basic pace for respiratory movements; their activity is regulated by input from the apnuestic and pnuemotaxic respiratory centers of the pons.

89
Q

Autonomic Nuclei of Medulla Oblongata

A

Nuclei located in the spinal cord and brainstem from which general visceral efferent preganglionic fibers arise

90
Q

Cranial Nerve Nuclei of Medulla Oblongata

A

The medulla oblongata contains sensory and motor nuclei associated with five of the cranial nerves (8, 9, 10, 11, and 12)

91
Q

Relay Stations Along Sensory and Motor Pathways in the Medulla Oblongata

A

The nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus pass somatic sensory information to the thalamus

92
Q

Decussation

A

Tracts leaving the brain stem nuclei cross over to the opposite side of the brain before reaching their destination

Site of crossover is called the decussation of pyramids

93
Q

Pons Location

A

Area of the hindbrain that sits directly above the medulla

94
Q

Pons Function

A

Connects the cerebellum with the midbrain diencephalon, cerebrum, and spinal cord

95
Q

Cranial Nerve Nuclei in Pons

A

These cranial nerves (5, 6, 7, and 8) innervate the jaw muscles, the anterior surface of the face, one of the extrinsic eye muscles, and the sense organs of the internal ear.

96
Q

Respiratory Centers in the Pons

A

On each side of the pons, the reticular formation in this region contains two respiratory centers: the apneustic center and the pneumotoxic center

These centers modify the activity of the respiratory rhythmicity centers in the medulla oblongata

97
Q

Relay Centers and Pathway in Pons

A

The pons links the cerebellum with the brain stem, cerebrum, and spinal cord

98
Q

Cerebellum Location

A

Lower area of the brain, directly behind/below the pons

99
Q

Cerebellum Functions

A

Responsible for balance and coordination of muscles and the body

100
Q

White Matter of the Cerebellum

A

Arbor vitae and cerebellar peduncles

101
Q

Arbor vitae

A

“Tree of Life”

Connects the cerebellar cortex and nuclei with the cerebellar peduncles

102
Q

Superior Cerebellar Peduncles

A

Link the cerebellum with nuclei in the midbrain, diencephalon, and cerebrum

103
Q

Middle Cerebellar Peduncle

A

Connected to a broad band of fibers that cross the ventral surface of the pons at right angles to the axis of the brain stem.

Also connect the cerebellar hemisphere with sensory and motor nuclei in the pons

104
Q

Inferior Cerebellar Peduncles

A

Communicate between the cerebellum and nuclei in the medulla oblongata and carry ascending and descending cerebellar tracts from the spinal cord

105
Q

Gray Matter in the Cerebellum

A

Cerebellar cortex and cerebellar nuclei

106
Q

Cerebellar Cortex

A

Outermost layer of the brain; made up of tightly packed neurons

Divided into four different lobes: temporal, occipital, frontal, parietal

107
Q

Cerebellar Nuclei

A

Embedded within the arbor vitae

108
Q

Midbrain Location

A

Sits on top of the pons

109
Q

Midbrain Function

A

Regulates auditory and visual reflexes and controls alertness

110
Q

Tectum

A

Roof of the midbrain

111
Q

Superior colliculi

A

Receives visual inputs from the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus on that side

112
Q

Inferior colliculi

A

Receives auditory input from nuclei in the medulla oblongata and pons

113
Q

Red Nuclei

A

Contains numerous blood vesses, which give it a rich red color; this nucleus receives information from the cerebrum and cerebellum and issues subconscious motor commands that affect upper limb position and background muscle tone

114
Q

Substantia Nigra

A

The largest midbrain nucleus; it lies lateral to the red nucleus

Inhibits activity of the basal nuclei in the cerebrum

115
Q

Cranial Nerve Nuclei in the Midbrain

A

Nuclei associated with cranial nerves 3 and 4

116
Q

Thalamus

A

On each side of the diencephalon; the thalamus is the final relay point for sensory information ascending to the primary sensory cortex

It acts as a filter, passing on only a small portion of the arriving sensory information

Also coordinates the activites of the basal nuclei and the cerebral cortex by relaying information between them

117
Q

Thalamic Nuclei

A

Deals primarily with the relay of sensory information to the basal nuclei and cerebral cortex

118
Q

Anterior Nuclei of Thalamus

A

Part of the limbic system; this system is involved with emotion and motivation

119
Q

Medial Group Nuclei of the Thalamus

A

Provide an awareness of emotional states by connecting emotional centers in the hypothalamus with the frontal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres

120
Q

Ventral Group Nuclei of the Thalamus

A

Relays information from the basal nuclei of the cerebrum and the cerebellum to somatic motor areas of the cerebral cortex

121
Q

Posterior Group Nuclei of the the Thalamus

A

Pulvinar nuclei - integrate sensory information projection to the cerebral cortex

Lateral geniculate nucleus - receives visual information over the optic tract, which originates at the eyes

Medial geniculate nucleus - relays auditory information to the appropriate area of the cerebral cortex from specialized receptors of the internal ear

122
Q

Lateral Group Nuclei in the Thalamus

A

Form feedback loops with the limbic system and the parietal lobs of the cerebral hemispheres

Affects emotional states and the integration of sensory information

123
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Extends from the area superior to the optic chiasm, a crossover where the optic tracts from the eyes arrive at the brain, to the posterior margins of the mammillary bodies

124
Q

Functions of the Hypothalamus

A
  1. Subconscious control of skeletal muscle contractions
  2. Control of autonomic function - adjusts and coordinates the activities of autonomic centers in the pons and medulla oblongata that regulate heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and digestive functions
  3. Regulation of endocrine system
  4. Secretion of antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
  5. Regulates subconscious motor activity
125
Q

Limbic System

A

Includes nuclei and tracts along the border between the cerebrum and diencephalon

Functional group rather than anatomical group

126
Q

Functions of Limbic System

A
  1. Establishing emotional states
  2. Linking the conscious, intellectual functions of the cerebral cortex with the unconscious and autonomic functions of the brain stem
  3. Facilitating memory storage and retrieval
127
Q

Components of the Limbic System

A
  1. Cortical
  2. Diencephalon
  3. Reticular formation
128
Q

Cerebrum

A

The largest region of the brain, contains motor, sensory, and association areas

Conscious thoughts and all intellectual functions originate in the cerebral hemispheres

129
Q

Basal Nuclei

A

Masses of gray matter that lie within each hemisphere deep to the floor of the lateral ventricle

They are embedded into the white matter of the cerebrum

130
Q

Functions of Basal Nuclei

A

Involved with the subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone and the coordination of learned movement patterns

131
Q

White Matter of the Cerebrum

A

Association Fibers
Projection Fibers
Commissural Fibers

132
Q

Association Fibers

A

Interconnect cortical areas within the same hemisphere

133
Q

Projection Fibers

A

Connect cerebral cortex to diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum, and spinal cord

134
Q

Commissural Fibers

A

Interconnect and permit communication between the cerebral hemispheres

135
Q

Frontal Lobe

A

Primary motor cortex - voluntary control of skeletal muscles

136
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

Auditory cortex and olfactory cortex - conscious perception of auditory and olfactory stimuli

137
Q

Parietal Lobe

A

Primary sensory cortex - conscious perception of touch, pressure, pain, vibration, taste, and temperature

138
Q

Occipital Lobe

A

Visual cortex - conscious perception of visual stimuli

139
Q

Primary Motor Cortex

A

Neurons of the primry motor cortex direct voluntary movements by controlling somatic motor neurons in the brain stem and spinal cord

Acts like a keyboard of a piano - if you stimulate a specific motor neuron, you generate a contraction in a specific skeletal muscle

140
Q

Premotor Cortex

A

Coordiates learned movements

When you perform a voluntary movement, the premotor cortex relays the instructions to the primary motor cortex

141
Q

Integrative Centers

A

Areas that receive information from many association areas and direct extremely complex motor activities

142
Q

The General Interpretive Area

A

Wernicke’s area; Present in only one hemisphere, typically the left

This analytical center receives information from all the sensory association areas

Plays an essential role in your personality by integrating sensory information and coordinating access to complex visual and auditory memories

143
Q

The Speech Center

A

Broca’s area

This center lies along the edge of the premotor cortex in the same hemisphere as the general interpretive area (usually the left).

The speech center regulate the patters of breathing and vocalization needed for normal speeech

144
Q

Prefrontal Cortex

A

Coordinates information relayed from the association areas of the entire cortex

145
Q

Cranial Nerves

A
  1. Olfactory (S)
  2. Optic (S)
  3. Oculomotor (M)
  4. Trochlear (M)
  5. Trigeminal (B)
  6. Abducens (M)
  7. Facial (B)
  8. Vestibulocochlear (S)
  9. Glossopharyngeal (B)
  10. Vagus (B)
  11. Spinal Accessory (M)
  12. Hypoglossal (M)
146
Q

Cranial Nerves Mnemonic

A 
O
O
O
To
Touch
And 
Feel
Very 
Good
Velvet
Such 
Heaven
147
Q

Cranial Nerves - Sensory, Motor, or Both Mnemonic

A 
Some
Say
Marry
Money
But
My
Brother
Says
Big
Brains 
Matter
More
148
Q

Olfactory Nerve

A

Cranial Nerve 1 - Sensory

Sense of smell

149
Q

Optic Nerve

A

Cranial Nerve 2 - Sensory

Sense of sight

150
Q

Oculomotor

A

Cranial Nerve 3 - Motor

Eyelid and eyeball movement

151
Q

Trochlear

A

Cranial Nerve 4 - Motor

Looking down at nose

152
Q

Trigeminal

A

Cranial Nerve 5 - Both

Chewing, face, mouth, touch, and pain

153
Q

Abducens

A

Cranial Nerve 6 - Motor

Turn eyes laterally

154
Q

Facial

A

Cranial Nerve 7 - Both

Most facial expressions, secretion of tears and saliva

155
Q

Vestibulocochlear

A

Cranial Nerve 8 - Sensory

Hearing and equilibrium

156
Q

Glossopharyngeal

A

Cranial Nerve 9 - Both

Taste and blood pressure

157
Q

Vagus

A

Cranial Nerve 10 - Both

Heart rate, digestive organs, test, aortic blood pressure

158
Q

Spinal Accessory

A

Cranial Nerve 11 - Motor

Controls trapezius and sternocleidomastoid, swallowing

159
Q

Hypoglossal

A

Cranial Nerve 12 - Motor

Controls tongue movement

160
Q

Receptor

A

Passes information to the CNS in the form of action potentials along the axon of a sensory neuron

161
Q

Functions of Receptors

A
  1. Adequate stimulus - each receptor has a characteristic sensitivity that detects stimulus
  2. Transduction - conversion of a sensory stimulus from one form to another
  3. Interpretation
162
Q

Types of Receptors

A

Nocioceptors, thermoreceptors, and mechanoreceptors

163
Q

Nocioceptors

A

Pain receptors; especially common in the superficial portions of the skin, in join capsules, within the periostea of bones and around the walls of blood vessels

May be sensitive to:

  1. Extreme temperatures
  2. Mechanical damage
  3. Dissolved chemicals
164
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

Temperature receptors; free nerve endings located in the dermis, in skeletal muscles, in the liver, and in the hypothalamus

Cold receptors are 3-4x more numerous than warm receptor

165
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

Sensitive to stimuli that distort their plasma membranes; these membranes contain mechincally gated ion channels

Three Classes:

  1. Tactile receptors
  2. Baroreceptors
  3. Proprioceptors
166
Q

Tactile Receptors

A

Provide the closely related sensations of touch, pressure, and vibration.

Touch sensations provide information about shape or texture.

167
Q

Baroreceptors

A

Detect pressure changes in the walls of blood vessels and in portions of the digestive, respiratory, and urinary tracts

168
Q

Proprioceptors

A

Monitor the positions of joins and skeletal muscles

They are the most structurally and functionally complex of the general sensory receptors.

169
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Specialized nerve cells that can detect small changes in the concentration of specific chemicals or compounds

170
Q

Somatic Sensory Pathways

A

Carry sensory information from the skin and muscles of the body wall, head, neck and limbs.

3 Major Pathways:

  1. Spinothalamic pathway
  2. Posterior column pathway
  3. Spinocerebellar pathway
171
Q

Spinothalamic Pathway

A

Carries sensations of poorly localized touch, pressure, pain, and temperature

This pathways includes small tracts that deliver sensations to reflex centers in the brain stem as well as larger tracts that carry sensations destined for the cerebral cortex

Example: phantom limb pain

172
Q

Anterior Spinothalamic Tract

A

Carry crude touch and pressure sensations

173
Q

Lateral Spinothalamic Tract

A

Carry pain and temperature sensations

174
Q

Posterior Columns

A

Carries sensations of highly localized (“fine”) touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception

Starts at the peripheral receptor and ends at the primary sensory cortex of the cerebral hemisphere

175
Q

Posterior Spinocerebellar Tracts

A

Contain axons that do not cross over to the opposite side of the spinal cord

These axons reach the cerebellar cortex by the inferior cerebellar peduncle of that side

176
Q

Anterior Spinocerebellar Tracts

A

Dominated by axons that have crossed over to the opposite side of the spinal cord

177
Q

Visceral Pathways

A

Visceral sensory information is collected by interoceptors monitoring visceral tissues and organs primarily within the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

Cranial nerves 5, 7, 9, and 10 carry information along these pathways from the mouth, palate, pharynx, larynx, trachea esophagus, and associated vessels and glands.

178
Q

Solitary Nucleus

A

Large nucleus on each side of the medulla oblongata

Major processing and sorting center for visceral sensory information

179
Q

Corticospinal Pathway

A

AKA Pyramidal System

Provides voluntary control over skeletal muscles

Direct - the upper motor neurons synapse directly on the lower motor neurons

Can also be indirectly as it innervates centers of the medial and lateral pathways

180
Q

3 Pairs of Descending Tracts in the Corticospinal Pathway

A
  1. Corticobulbar tract
  2. Lateral corticospinal tracts
  3. Anterior cortiocspinal tract

These tracts enter the white matter of the internal capsule, descend into the brain stem, and emerge on either side of the midrain as the cerebral peduncles

181
Q

Corticobulbar Tract

A

Axons synapse on lower motor neurons in the motor nuclei of cranial nerves 3-7, 9, 11, and 12

Provides conscious control over skeletal muscles that move the eye, jaw, and face, and some muscles of the neck and pharynx

Innervate the motor centers of the medial and lateral pathways

182
Q

Lateral Corticospinal Tracts

A

Cross the spinal cord; run on the opposite side of the spinal cord

183
Q

Anterior Corticospinal Tracts

A

Uncrossed along the spinal cord

184
Q

Extrapyramidal

A

Medial and Lateral pathways

The components of the medial pathways help control gross movements of the trunk and proximal limb muslces, and those of the lateral pathway help control the distal limb muscles that perform more precise movements

185
Q

Medial Pathways

A

Primarily concerned with the control of muscle tone and gross movements of the neck trunk and proximal limb muscles.

186
Q

Vestibulospinal Tracts

A

Descending tracts of the medial pathway that carry involuntary motor commands issued by the vestibular nucleus to stabilize the position of the head.

187
Q

Tectospinal Tract

A

Descending tracts of the medial pathway that carry involuntary motor commands issued by the colliculi

188
Q

Reticulospinal Tract

A

Descending tracts of the medial pathway that carry involuntary motor commands issued by neurons of the reticular formation

189
Q

Lateral Pathways

A

Primarily concerned with the control of muscle tone and the more precise movements of the distal parts of the limb

190
Q

Rubrospinal Tracts

A

Descending tracts of the lateral pathway that carry involuntary motor commands issued by the red nucleus of the mesencephalon

191
Q

Basal Nuclei

A

Responsible for coordination and feedback control over muscle contraction

Provide the background patters of movement involved in voluntary motor activities

192
Q

Two Major Pathways for Basal Nuclei

A
  1. One group of axons synapses on thalamic neurons, whose axons extend to the premotor cortex, the motor association area that directs activities of the primary motor cortex. This arrangement creates a feedback loop that changes the sensitivity of the pyramidal cells and alters the pattern of instructions carried by the corticospinal tracts.
  2. A second group of axons synapses in the reticular formation, altering the excitatory or inhibitory output of the reticulospinal tracts.
193
Q

Two Populations of Interneurons in Basal Nuclei

A

One that stimulates neurons by releasing acetylcholine (ACh) and another that inhibits neurons by releasing gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)

194
Q

Role of the Cerebellum

A

Monitors proprioceptive (position) sensations, visual information from the eyes, and vestibular (balance) sensation from the interal ear as movements are under way.

The patterns of cerebellar activity are learned by trial and error, over many repetitions. Many of the basic patterns are established early in life.

All motor pathways send information to the cerebellum when motor commands are issued. As the movement proceeds, the cerebellum monitors proprioceptive and vestibular information, comparing the arriving sensations with those experienced during previous movements. It then adjusts the activities of the upper motor neurons involved.

195
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

Involved in the unconscious regulation of visceral functions and has sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

Coordinates cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive functions

196
Q

Preganglionic Neuron

A

Visceral motor neurons in the brain stem and spinal cord that extend to ganglia

Part of visceral reflex arcs - most of their activities represent direct reflex response rather than responses to commands from the hypothalamus

197
Q

Postganglionic Neuron

A

Preganglionic fibers leave the CNS and synapse on postganglionic neurons which are visceral motor neurons in peripheral ganglia

Innervate visceral effectors such as smooth muscle, glands, cardiac muscle, and adipocytes

198
Q

Autonomic Ganglion

A

A collection of visceral motor neurons (postsganglionic neurons) outside the central nervous system

199
Q

Preganglionic Fibers

A

Axons of preganglionic neurons

200
Q

Postganglionic Fibers

A

Axons of postganglionic neurons

201
Q

Divisions of the ANS

A

Sympathetic, Parasympathetic and Enteric

202
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A

“Kicks in” only during exertion, stress, or emergency

“Fight or flight” response

Readies the body for a crisis that may require sudden, intense physical activity

203
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A

“Rest and Digest” response

Conserves energy and promotes sedentary activities, such as digestion

Stimulates visceral activity; body relaxes, energy demands are minimal, and both your heart rate and blood pressure are relatively low while your digestive organs are highly stimulated

204
Q

Enteric Nervous System

A

An extensive network of neurons and nerve networks in the walls of the digestive tract

205
Q

Paravertebral (Sympathetic Chain) Ganglia

A

Lie on both sides of the vertebral column

Neurons in these ganglia control effectors in the body wall, inside the thoracic cavity, and in the head and limbs

206
Q

Prevertebral (Collateral) Ganglia

A

Anterior to the vertebral bodies

Contain ganglionic neurons that innervate tissues and organs in the abdominopelivic cavity

207
Q

Adrenal Medulla

A

Center of each adrenal gland

It is a modified sympathetic ganglion; the ganglionic neurons of the adrenal medullae have very short axons. When stimulated, they release neurotransmitters into the bloodstream, not at a synapse.

208
Q

Ventricle

A

One of four fluid filled interior chambers of the brain

209
Q

Commisural

A

Crosses over from side to the other

210
Q

Proprioception

A

The awareness of the position of bones, joints, and muscles

211
Q

Threshold

A

The membrane potential at which an action potential begin

212
Q

Ipsilateral

A

A reflex response that affects the same side as the stimulus

213
Q

Corneal Reflex

A

(S) Blinking of eyelids

214
Q

Tympanic Reflex

A

(S) Reduced movement of the auditory ossicles

215
Q

Auditory Reflex

A

(S) Eye and/or head movements triggered by sudden sounds

216
Q

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

A

(S) Opposite movement of eyes to stabilize field of vision

217
Q

Direct Light Reflex

A

(V) Constriction of ipsilateral pupil

218
Q

Consensual Light Reflex

A

(V) Constriction of contralateral pupil

A&P I - Grace College (5 decks)

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