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PSYC 100 > Exam 4: Final Exam > Flashcards

Exam 4: Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Personality

A

An individual’s characteristic style of behaving, thinking, and feeling.
Studied through description, explanation, and quantitative measurement

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2
Q

Prior events

A

Events in the past that shaped personality

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3
Q

Anticipated events

A

Events that motivate a person to reveal personality characteristics

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4
Q

Self-report measurement

A

A method in which people provide subjective info about their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, typically via questionnaire or interview
- Ten-Item Personality Inventory
- MMPI-2-RF

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5
Q

Validity scales

A

Alleviate response style biases such as:
- attitude toward test taking
- tendency to distort answers

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6
Q

MMPI-2-RF

A

A well-researched clinical questionnaire to assess personality and psychological problems.
Self-descriptive statements answered by true/false/can’t say

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7
Q

Projective techniques

A

Designed to reveal inner aspects of individuals’ personalities by analysis of their responses to a standard series of ambiguous stimuli; generally seen as unreliable and don’t reveal valid info or predictions

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8
Q

Rorschach Inkblot Test

A

Individual interpretations of the meaning of a set of unstructured inkblots are analyzed to identify inner feelings and interpret personality structure

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9
Q

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A

Respondents reveal underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world through stories about ambiguous pictures of people

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10
Q

Automated behavior identification

A

Allows for removal of human influence.
For example: the EAR (electronically activated recorder) sampled hundreds of participants and found that women and men are equally talkative

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11
Q

Social media analysis

A

For example: 700 million words and phrases posted on FaceBook by 75,000 people were compared to results of personality tests of the same people; revealed certain trends

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12
Q

Examples of utilizing technology to measure personality?

A
  • Automated behavior identification
  • Natural Language Processing
  • Social media analysis
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13
Q

Psychological constructs and problems measured through the MMPI-2-RF

A
  • clinical
  • somatic
  • internalizing
  • externalizing
  • interpersonal
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14
Q

The Trait Approach

A

Categorizes differences among individuals through description, not explanation

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15
Q

Trait

A

A relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and consistent way; limited by the infinite adjectives that can be used to describe traits

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16
Q

How can traits be used to explain behavior?

A
  1. The trait is a preexisting disposition that causes behavior; these are found through inventories
  2. The trait is a motivation that guides behavior; these are found through projective tests
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17
Q

Core traits

A

Adjectives that describe personality; can be organized in a hierarchical pattern through factor analysis

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18
Q

Factor analysis

A

Sorts trait terms or self-descriptions into a small number of underlying dimensions; researchers argue about how many core factors exist

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19
Q

Big Five (five-factor analysis)

A
  • openness to experience
  • conscientiousness
  • extraversion
  • agreeableness
  • neuroticism
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20
Q

Openness to experience

A

imaginative vs. down to earth
variety vs. routine
independent vs. conforming

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21
Q

Conscientiousness

A

organized vs. disorganized
careful vs. careless
self-disciplined vs. weak-willed

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22
Q

Extraversion

A

social vs. retiring
fun-loving vs. sober
affectionate vs. reserved

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23
Q

Agreeableness

A

softhearted vs. ruthless
trusting vs. suspicious
helpful vs. uncooperative

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24
Q

Neuroticism

A

worried vs. calm
insecure vs. secure
self-pitying vs. self-satisfied

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25
Q

What can cause changes in personality?

A
  • brain damage
  • brain pathologies
  • pharmaceutical treatment
  • mind-altering drugs
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26
Q

How do genetics contribute to behavior?

A
  • heritability of personality is about 40%
  • heritability of Big Five range from 31% to 41%
  • conservatism vs. liberalism linked to chromosomes associated with mental flexibility
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27
Q

How does gender impact personality?

A

Gender differences increase over time, suggesting cultural influence

  • boys show more external emotion and anger; men then become physically aggressive, assertive, and confident
  • girls show more internal emotion, sadness, and anxiety; women become more verbal, nurturing, and insecure
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28
Q

Social Role Theory

A

Personality differences between women and men arise from cultural standards and expectations

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29
Q

Bem Sex Role Inventory

A

Participants rate themselves on items that are either “masculine” or “feminine” without seeing gender association; revealed that psychological androgyny has positive associations including less depression

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30
Q

Neurophysiological associations of extraversion vs. introversion

A

extraversion: reticular formation not as easily stimulated, so they seek more mental stimulation

introversion: cortex more easily stimulated and overwhelmed

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31
Q

Behavioral activation system (BAS)

A

“Go” system; activates approach behavior in response to anticipation of reward, more reactive in extraverts

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32
Q

Behavioral inhibition system (BIS)

A

“Stop” system; inhibits behavior in response to stimuli signaling punishment, more reactive in introverts

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33
Q

Psychodynamic approach

A

Regards personality as formed by needs, strivings, and desires largely operating outside of awareness; motives can produce emotional disorders

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34
Q

Defense mechanisms

A

Unconscious coping mechanisms that reduce anxiety generated by threats from unacceptable impulses

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35
Q

Rationalization

A

Supplying a reasonable-sounding explanation for unacceptable feelings and behaviors to conceal one’s underlying motives or feelings

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36
Q

Repression

A

Removing painful experiences, sources of anxiety, and unacceptable impulses from the conscious mind

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37
Q

Denial

A

Refusing to acknowledge the source of anxiety

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38
Q

Reaction formation

A

Unconsciously replacing threatening inner wishes and fantasies with an exaggerated version of their opposite

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39
Q

Projection

A

Attributing one’s own threatening feelings, motives, or impulses to another person or group

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40
Q

Regression

A

Ego deals with internal conflict and perceived threat by reverting to immature behavior or earlier stage of development

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41
Q

Displacement

A

Shifting unacceptable wishes or drives to a neutral or less threatening alternative

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42
Q

Identification

A

Helps deal with feelings of threat and anxiety by enabling us to unconsciously take on the characteristics of another person who seems more powerful or able to cope

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43
Q

Sublimation

A

Channeling unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives into socially acceptable and culturally enhancing activities

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44
Q

Humanistic-Existential Approach

A

Combines humanistic psychology and existential psychology; says that humans make healthy choices that create their personalities

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45
Q

Humanistic psychology

A

Emphasizes positive, optimistic view of human nature, goodness, and potential for growth

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46
Q

Existential psychology

A

Emphasizes the individual as a responsible agent, free to create their life while negotiating the issue of meaning and the reality of death

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47
Q

Self-actualization tendency

A

The human motive toward realizing our inner potential through the pursuit of knowledge, expression of creativity, desire to give to society, etc.

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48
Q

Flow experience

A

Caused by engagement in tasks that match our abilities and don’t challenge us too excessively. This reflects our realization of potential and height of personality development

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49
Q

Existential approach

A

A school of thought that regards personality as governed by an individual’s ongoing choices and decisions in the context of the realities of life and death.
Argues that we should deal with issues directly instead of using defenses and accept the pain of existence

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50
Q

Angst

A

The anxiety of full being
- why am I here?
- what is the meaning of life?

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51
Q

Social-cognitive approach

A

Views personality in terms of how a person thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them; emphasizes perception of environment

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52
Q

Person-situation controversy

A

The question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors, in contrast to the basic idea that personality characteristics cause people to behave in the same way across situations and over time

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53
Q

Outcome expectancies

A

Goals and expectations that lead to a characteristic style of behavior fuel a person’s assumptions about the likely consequences of a future behavior

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54
Q

Locus of control

A

A person’s tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment; measures how much control we believe we have

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55
Q

Personal constructs

A

Dimensions people use in making sense of their experiences. Therefore, we see the social world from different perspectives that lead us to behave in different ways based on how we perceive those behaviors

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56
Q

Self-recognition

A

We can recognize ourselves in the mirror by 18 months, which enables reflexive thinking and leads to self-concept and self-esteem

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57
Q

Self-concept

A

What we think about ourselves; our explicit knowledge of our own behaviors, traits, and other personal characteristics; developed from social experiences and impacts behavior throughout life

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58
Q

“I” vs. “Me”

A

“I” is a perspective of all personal experiences such as thoughts, acts, etc.

“Me” is the self that is known as an object in the world and can be described by physical characteristics, activities, personality traits, social roles, etc.

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59
Q

Autobiographical memory

A

Knowledge of self, organized into self-narrative and self-schema, which don’t always align

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60
Q

Self-narrative

A

A story we tell about ourselves

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61
Q

Self-schema

A

Sets of traits we use to define ourselves

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62
Q

Sense of self

A

Largely constructed through relationships with others and feedback

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63
Q

Self-verification

A

Tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self-concept

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64
Q

Self-esteem

A

The extent to which an individual likes, values, and accepts the self; arises from comparison with others, and being valued and accepted by others
- Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

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65
Q

Self-serving bias

A

People’s tendency to take credit for their successes but downplay responsibility for their failures

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66
Q

Narcissism

A

A grandiose view of the self, combined with a tendency to seek admiration from and exploit others

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67
Q

Implicit egotism

A

Argues that people are generally unaware of their preference for things similar to themselves

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68
Q

Self-compassion

A

Correlated with self-esteem; predicts reactions when confronted with failure and hardship, and is protective in the face of social rejection

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69
Q

Three forms of self-compassion

A

isolation vs. common humanity
self-judgment vs. self-kindness
over-identification vs. mindfulness

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70
Q

Social psychology

A

The study of the causes and consequences of sociality, including the effects of social variables on individual behavior, attitudes, perceptions, and motives

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71
Q

Social role

A

Social-defined pattern of behavior

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72
Q

Rules

A

Behavioral guidelines

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73
Q

Social norms

A

Expectation a group has for its members

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74
Q

Social cognition

A

Process by which people select, interpret, and categorize the behaviors of others

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75
Q

Social perception

A

Process by which people come to understand and categorize the behaviors of others

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76
Q

Attribution theory

A

Describes the ways the social perceiver uses information to generate causal explanations

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77
Q

Covariation model

A

Claims we rely on consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus when making attributions

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78
Q

Situational attribution

A

Low consistency, high consensus, high distinctiveness

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79
Q

Dispositional attribution

A

High consistency, low consensus, low distinctiveness

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80
Q

Consistency

A

Does the person perform this action regularly?

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81
Q

Consensus

A

Do most people perform this action?

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82
Q

Distinctiveness

A

Does the person perform similar actions?

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83
Q

Correspondence bias

A

Tendency to make a dispositional attribution when a person’s behavior was caused by the situation

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84
Q

Actor-observer effect

A

Tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviors while making dispositional attributions for the identical behaviors of others

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85
Q

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A

Prediction modifies interactions so as to produce what is expected

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86
Q

Behavioral confirmation

A

People behave in ways that elicit specific expected reactions and then use those reactions to confirm their beliefs

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87
Q

Aggression

A

Intentional behavior whose purpose is to harm another person where the victim wants to avoid harm

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88
Q

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

A

Animals aggress when their goals are frustrated/obstructed

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89
Q

Proactive aggression

A

Aggression that is planned and purposeful

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90
Q

Reactive aggression

A

Aggression that occurs spontaneously in response to a negative affective state

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91
Q

How do different genders aggress differently?

A
  • due to aggression fueled by testosterone, men are responsible for the large majority of violent crime
  • women commit more relational and indirect aggression
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92
Q

Cooperation

A

Behavior by two or more individuals that can lead to mutual benefit, but can be risky

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93
Q

Explain the Prisoner’s Dilemma

A

You and Tucker are being questioned for a crime in two separate rooms. If you both refuse to sign the document, then you both serve 1 year. If you refuse to sign but Tucker does sign, then he goes free and you serve 3 years. However, if you sign and Tucker doesn’t, then you go free and Tucker serves 3 years. But if you sign and Tucker signs, then you both serve 2 years. How do you know what to do?

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94
Q

Group

A

A collection of people who have something in common that distinguishes them from others

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95
Q

Prejudice

A

An evaluation of another person based solely on their group membership

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96
Q

In-group favoritism

A

Being positively prejudiced toward members of your own group

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97
Q

What four factors are present in group decision-making?

A
  • not fully capitalizing on individual expertise
  • common-knowledge effect
  • group polarization
  • groupthink
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98
Q

Common-knowledge effect

A

The tendency for group discussions to focus on info that all members share

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99
Q

Group polarization

A

The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than any member would have made alone

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100
Q

Groupthink

A

The tendency for groups to filter out undesirable input and reach consensus in order to facilitate interpersonal harmony

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101
Q

Deindividuation

A

When immersion in a group causes people to become less concerned with their personal values, which leads to groups acting poorly when together and doing things they would never do alone

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102
Q

Diffusion of responsibility

A

The tendency of individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting in the same way

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103
Q

Social loafing

A

Tendency of people to expend less effort when they are in a group than when alone

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104
Q

Bystander intervention effect

A

When the act of helping strangers in an emergency situation is greatly diminished by diffusion of responsibility when others are nearby

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105
Q

Prosocial behavior

A

The tendency to help others

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106
Q

Altruism

A

Intentional behavior that benefits another at a potential cost to oneself and with no reward

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107
Q

Inclusive fitness

A

The process by which evolution selects individuals who cooperate with their relatives for the benefits of passing genes rather than individual survival

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108
Q

Reciprocal altruism

A

Behavior that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future

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109
Q

Attraction

A

A feeling of preference caused by situational, physical, and psychological factors; facilitated by proximity

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110
Q

The “Love Bridge” experiment

A

Physiological arousal can be misinterpreted as attraction

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111
Q

Mere exposure effect

A

Tendency for linking of a stimulus to increase with the frequency of exposure to that stimulus

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112
Q

How does gender impact mate selectivity?

A
  • women are more selective about sex because of the potential cost
  • all genders are choosier and more cautious when approached, but less picky when approaching
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113
Q

Homophily

A

The tendency for people to like others who are similar to themselves

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2
3
4
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114
Q

Love

A

Strong affection for another person due to kinship, personal ties, sexual attraction, admiration, common interests, etc.

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115
Q

Sternberg’s Three Components of Love

A

Intimacy, commitment, and passion

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116
Q

Empty love

A

Love with just commitment

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117
Q

Companionate love

A

Love with commitment and intimacy; an experience involving affection, trust, and concern for a partner’s well-being

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118
Q

Friendship love/liking

A

Love with just intimacy

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119
Q

Romantic love

A

Love with intimacy and passion

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120
Q

Infatuated love

A

Love with just passion; an experience involving feelings of euphoria, intimacy, and intense sexual attraction

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121
Q

Fatuous love

A

Love with passion and commitment

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122
Q

Consummate love

A

Love with commitment, intimacy, and passion; the most complete and fulfilling type of love

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123
Q

Why do people divorce?

A

Comparison level for alternatives: the cost-benefit ratio that a person believes they could attain in another relationship

124
Q

Normative influence

A

Occurs when another person’s behavior provides info about what is appropriate; can be exploited to gain compliance
- norm of reciprocity
- door-in-face
- foot-in-door

125
Q

What are the three motives that make us susceptible to social influence?

A
  • hedonic motive
  • approval motive
  • accuracy motive
126
Q

What are the three parts of the approval motive?

A
  • normative influence
  • conformity
  • obedience
127
Q

Conformity

A

The tendency to do what other do simply because other are doing it, and we assume this means it is the appropriate and expected behavior
- Asch’s line tests

128
Q

Obedience

A

Altering behavior in response to a request from an authority figure
- Milgram’s shock study

129
Q

What are the three parts of the accuracy motive?

A
  • informational influence
  • persuasion
  • consistency and dissonance
130
Q

Attitude

A

Enduring positive or negative evaluation of an object or event; tells us what we should do

131
Q

Belief

A

Enduring piece of knowledge about an object or event; tells us how to do things

132
Q

Informational influence

A

Occurs when another person’s behavior provides info about what is good or right

133
Q

Persuasion

A

When attitudes or beliefs are influenced by a communication from another person; systematic and heuristic

134
Q

Systematic persuasion

A

Process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to reason

135
Q

Heuristics persuasion

A

Process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to habit or emotion

136
Q

Consistency and dissonance

A

People evaluate the accuracy of new beliefs by assessing their consistency with old beliefs; can lead to cognitive dissonance

137
Q

Cognitive dissonance

A

State of conflict someone experiences after making a decision, taking an action, or being exposed to information that is contrary to prior beliefs, feelings, or values

138
Q

Stereotype

A

A generalized belief about members of a group

139
Q

Discrimination

A

Inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people based on their group membership

140
Q

Category-based inferences

A

Inferences based on information about the categories to which a person belongs

141
Q

Target-based inferences

A

Inferences based on information about an individual’s behavior

142
Q

Behavioral confirmation

A

The tendency of targets to behave as observers expect them to behave

143
Q

Stereotype threat

A

The target’s fear of confirming the observer’s negative stereotypes

144
Q

Perceptual confirmation

A

The tendency of observers to see what they expect to see

145
Q

Subtyping

A

The tendency of observers to think of targets who disconfirm stereotypes as “exceptions to the rule”

146
Q

Norm of reciprocity

A

The unwritten rule that people should benefit those who have benefited them

147
Q

Door-in-the-face technique

A

An influence strategy that involves getting someone to accept a small request by first getting them to refuse a large request

148
Q

Foot-in-the-door technique

A

Making a small request and then following it with a larger request

149
Q

Social cognitive theory

A

Views prejudice as an attitude acquired through direct instruction, modeling, and other social influences

150
Q

Realistic conflict theory

A

Conflict between groups increases prejudice and discrimination

151
Q

Social identity theory

A

The formation of a person’s identity within a particular social group is explained by social categorization, social identity, and social comparison

152
Q

“Jigsaw classroom”

A

Educational technique in which each individual is given only part of the information needed to solve a problem, forcing individuals to work together to find the solution

153
Q

Stressors

A

Specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person’s well-being

154
Q

Stress

A

Physiological and psychological response to internal or external stressors

155
Q

Health Psychology

A

Subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of psychical illness and the maintenance of health

156
Q

Chronic stressors

A

Sources of stress that occur continuously or repeatedly; environment, discrimination

157
Q

Allostatic load

A
158
Q

Fight-or-flight response

A

An emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action

159
Q

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

A

A three-stage physiological stress response that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered
1. alarm phase
2. resistance phase
3. exhaustion phase

160
Q

Alarm phase

A

Body calls on stored fat and muscle to produce energy and rapidly mobilize

161
Q

Resistance phase

A

Body continues drawing on stored resources, and adapts to high state of arousal by shutting down unnecessary processes such as digestion, menstruation, etc.

162
Q

Exhaustion phase

A

Body’s resistance collapses, defenses become damaged, and the body becomes weak and susceptible to infection, tumor growth, organ damage, etc.

163
Q

Telomeres

A

Caps at the ends of the chromosomes that prevent chromosomes from sticking to each other

164
Q

Telomerase

A

An enzyme that rebuilds telomeres at the tips of chromosomes

165
Q

How does stress impact telomeres and aging?

A

Exposure to stress causes accelerated cell division, during which chromosomes are repeatedly copied, their telomeres shortening with each division. When telomeres are too short, cell division stops, which happens much sooner when the body is exposed to stress

166
Q

Immune system

A

A complex response system that protects the body from bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances

167
Q

Psychoneuroimmunology

A

Study of how the immune system responds to psychological variables

168
Q

How does chronic stress affect the immune system?

A

Stressors can cause hormones to flood the brain, wearing down the immune system and making it less able to fight invaders

169
Q

How does stress affect cardiovascular health?

A

Stress causes blood pressure to go up, gradually damaging blood vessels and eventually causing heart disease

170
Q

Type A behavior pattern

A

A tendency toward easily aroused hostility, impatience, sense of time urgency, and competitive achievement strivings; correlated with rates of heart disease

171
Q

Primary appraisal

A

The interpretation of a stimulus as being stressful or not

172
Q

Secondary appraisal

A

Determining whether the stressor is something you can handle/have control over or not (threat or challenge)

173
Q

Threat

A

A stressor you believe you might not be able to overcome

174
Q

Challenge

A

A stressor you feel fairly confident you can control

175
Q

Burnout

A

A state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion resulting from long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation

176
Q

Stress management techniques

A

Mind management: coping and reframing

Body management: meditation and movement

177
Q

Repressive coping

A

Avoiding feelings, thoughts, or situations that are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint

178
Q

Rational coping

A

Facing the stressor and working to overcome it
- step 1: acceptance
- step 2: exposure
- step 3: understanding

179
Q

Reframing

A

Finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat
- Stress inoculation training (SIT)

180
Q

Stress inoculation training (SIT)

A

Reframing technique that helps people cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about situations

181
Q

Meditation

A

The practice of intentional contemplation

182
Q

Relaxation therapy

A

A technique for reducing tension by consciously relaxing muscles of the body

183
Q

Relaxation response

A

A condition of reduced muscle tension, cortical activity, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure

184
Q

Biofeedback

A

The use of an external monitoring device to obtain information about a bodily function and then to possibly gain control over that function
- EEG neurofeedback
- visual or audio feedback

185
Q

Social support

A

Aid gained through interacting with others; a form of situation management and stress reduction

186
Q

How does social support differ by gender?

A

Women seek support under stress; tend-and-befriend.

Men less likely to seek support and rather revert to fight-or-flight.

187
Q

Situation management methods

A
  • social support
  • religious and spiritual practice
  • humor
  • avoiding procrastination
188
Q

Religiosity and spirituality

A

Help in managing stress
- Religiosity: engagement in the practices of a particular religion
- Spirituality: having a belief in and engagement with some higher power

189
Q

Sickness response

A

Coordinated, adaptive set of reactions to illness organized by the brain; also illustrated in depression
- withdrawal from activity and eating
- immune response activates white cells
- proteins activate vagus nerve

190
Q

Pain

A

A psychological state that can be difficult to measure; scales with external expressions sometimes used

191
Q

How do placebos impact the brain?

A

Placebos cause a clinically significant psychological or physiological response to therapeutically inert substances or procedures; trigger the release of endorphins and lower brain activation in areas associated with pain

192
Q

Psychosomatic illness

A

An interaction between mind and body that can produce illness

193
Q

Somatic symptom disorders

A

Where a person with at least one bodily symptom displays significant health-related anxiety, expresses disproportionate concerns about their symptoms, and devotes excessive time and energy to their symptoms or health concerns

194
Q

Somatoform disorders

A

People experience unexplained medical conditions generated by the mind; includes hypochondriasis

195
Q

Sick role

A

Socially recognized set of rights and obligations linked with illness; provides exemptions and obligations

196
Q

Malingering

A

Feigning medical or psychological symptoms to achieve something one wants

197
Q

Optimism

A
  • optimism aids in maintenance of psychological health in the face of physical adversity
  • individual level of optimism or pessimism tends to be stable over time
198
Q

Hardiness

A
  • resistance to stress
  • characterized by commitment, sense of control, acceptance of challenge
199
Q

Self-regulation

A

The exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards

200
Q

Mental disorder

A

Persistent disturbance or dysfunction in behavior, thoughts, or emotions that cause significant distress or impairment

201
Q

Medical model

A

Abnormal psychological experiences are conceptualized as illnesses that have:
1. biological and environmental causes
2. defined symptoms
3. possible cures

202
Q

Signs vs. symptoms

A

Signs: objectively observed indicators of a disorder

Symptoms: subjectively reported behaviors, thoughts, and emotions

203
Q

DSM-I

A

Classification system that described the features used to diagnose each recognized mental disorder; written in 1952

204
Q

DMS-II

A

First revision of the DSM that provides common language for talking about disorders; written in 1968

205
Q

DSM-III and DSM-IV

A

Written in 1980 and 1994; provided detailed list of symptoms/diagnostic criteria for 200+ disorders and improves reliability in diagnosis of mental disorder

206
Q

DSM-5

A

Written in 2013; describes 22 major categories for 200+ mental disorders and lists specific criteria that must be used for diagnosis, describes conditions as formal disorders and includes cultural considerations

207
Q

Comorbidity

A

Co-occurrence of two or more disorders in a single individual

208
Q

Biopsychosocial perspective

A

Explains mental disorders as the result of interactions among biological, psychological, and social factors

209
Q

Diathesis-stress model

A

Suggests that a person may be predisposed for a mental disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress

210
Q

Diathesis

A
  • brain structure
  • hormones
  • early learning
  • memory bias
  • genes
211
Q

Stress

A
  • abuse
  • physical illness
  • trauma
  • loss
212
Q

Research Domain Criteria Initiative (RDoC)

A

An initiative that attempts to shift the focus away from diagnosing based on the observed surface symptoms and towards an understanding of underlying causes and processes that lead to disordered behaviors

213
Q

Stigma

A

Negative perception and ignorance attached to labeling people with psychological disorders

214
Q

Anxiety disorder

A

The class of mental disorders in which anxiety is the predominant feature; comorbid with depression and other types of anxiety

215
Q

Phobic disorders

A

Characterized by marked, persistent, and excessive fear and avoidance of specific objects, activities, or situations; is irrational and has learned components

216
Q

Specific phobia

A

An irrational fear of a particular object or situation that markedly interferes with an individual’s ability to function

217
Q

Social phobia

A

An irrational fear of being publicly humiliated or embarrassed

218
Q

Agoraphobia

A

Specific phobia involving fear of public spaces

219
Q

Preparedness theory

A

The basis of understanding phobias; suggests that people are instinctively predisposed toward certain fears (Seligman)
- evolution, heritability, temperament
- classic conditioning

220
Q

Panic disorder

A

The sudden occurrence of multiple psychological and physiological symptoms that contribute to a feeling of stark terror; more common in women, but many people will report having at least one panic attack

221
Q

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

A

Chronic excessive worry accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbance; comorbid with depression

222
Q

What causes GAD?

A

Neurotransmitter imbalance of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and can be treated by benzodiazepines or SSRIs. The imbalance is not completely understood, but environmental factors are often involved (diathesis-stress model)

223
Q

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

A

Repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and ritualistic behaviors (compulsions) designed to fend off those thoughts interfere significantly with an individual’s functioning; supports preparedness theory

224
Q

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

A

Chronic physiological arousal, recurrent unwanted thoughts or images of the trauma, and avoidance of things that call the traumatic event to mind

225
Q

How does PTSD show up in the brain?

A

Heightened amygdala activity, decreased medial prefrontal cortex activity; reduced hippocampal size is a preexisting condition that makes a person more susceptible to PTSD

226
Q

Mood disorders

A

Mental disorders that have mood disturbance as their predominant feature
- depression
- bipolar disorder

227
Q

Major depressive disorder

A

Characterized by a severely depressed mood and/or inability to experience pleasure that lasts two or more weeks and is accompanied by feelings of worthlessness, lethargy, and sleep and appetite disturbance

228
Q

Persistent depressive disorder

A

The same cognitive and bodily problems as in depression are present, but they are less severe and last longer, persisting for at least two years

229
Q

Double depression

A

Co-occurrence of major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder; defined as moderately depressed mood that persists for at least two years and is punctuated by periods of major depression

230
Q

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

A

Recurrent depressive episodes in a seasonal pattern, most commonly beginning in fall or winter and ending in spring; more experienced by women

231
Q

Postpartum depression

A

Form of depression experienced by women after childbirth, partially due to abruptly changing hormone balances

232
Q

How much do genetics account for depression?

A

Major depressive disorder is 33% to 45% heritable

233
Q

How do genes and the environment interact in depression?

A

Short alleles on the serotonin transporter gene are associated with less efficient serotonergic functioning and increased risk of depression, especially when one experiences stressful life conditions

234
Q

Helplessness theory

A

Individuals who are prone to depression automatically attribute negative experiences to causes that are internal (their own fault), stable (unlikely to change), and global (widespread)

235
Q

Bipolar disorder

A

A condition characterized by cycles of abnormal, persistent high mood (mania) and low mood (depression)
- highly heritable
- easily confused with major depression or schizophrenia

236
Q

Expressed emotion

A

A measure of how much hostility, criticism, and emotional overinvolvement people communicate when speaking about a family member with a mental disorder; family members high in expressed emotion are associated with relapse across mental disorders

237
Q

How do some mental disorders overlap?

A

Genetic risk factors associated with bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, major depression, autism spectrum disorder, and ADHD overlap and cause overlapping symptoms

238
Q

Schizophrenia

A

Psychotic disorder characterized by the profound disruption of basic psychological processes; a distorted perception of reality; altered or blunted emotion; and disturbances in thought, motivation, and behavior

239
Q

Positive symptoms of schizophrenia

A

Thoughts and behaviors, such as delusions and hallucinations, not seen in those without the disorder

240
Q

Hallucinations

A

False perceptual experiences that have a compelling sense of being real despite the absence of external stimulation

241
Q

Delusions

A

False beliefs, often bizarre and grandiose, that are maintained in spite of their irrationality

242
Q

Disorganized speech

A

A severe disruption of verbal communication in which ideas shift rapidly and incoherently among unrelated topics

243
Q

Grossly disorganized behavior

A

Behavior that is inappropriate for the situation or ineffective in attaining goals

244
Q

Catatonic behavior

A

A marked decrease in all movement or an increase in muscular rigidity and overactivity

245
Q

Negative symptoms

A

Deficits in or disruptions of normal emotions and behaviors

246
Q

Cognitive symptoms

A

Deficits in cognitive abilities, specifically in execute functioning, attention, and working memory

247
Q

Medication-induced movement disorders

A

Motor disturbances arising from medications of the sort commonly used to treat schizophrenia

248
Q

Biological factors of schizophrenia

A
  • Genetics play a role; schizophrenia is highly heritable.
  • Prenatal and perinatal environment may play a role.
  • Dopamine hypothesis
  • Dramatic synaptic pruning and brain tissue loss
249
Q

Dopamine hypothesis

A

The idea that schizophrenia involves an excess of dopamine activity

250
Q

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

A

A condition beginning in early childhood in which a person shows persistent communication deficits, as well as restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviors, interests, or activities; impaired capacity for empathizing, combined with superior systematizing

251
Q

How does the DSM-5 subdivide ASD?

A
  • autistic disorder
  • Asperger’s disorder
  • childhood disintegrative disorder
  • other pervasive developmental disorder
252
Q

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A

A persistent pattern of severe problems with inattention and/or hyperactivity or impulsiveness that cause significant impairments in functioning; extremely heritable at 76%

253
Q

What is the diagnostic requirement for ADHD?

A

Behavior occurs for at least six months in at least two settings (home and school), and must have been present before age 12

254
Q

Conduct disorder

A

A persistent pattern of deviant behavior involving aggression to people or animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, or serious rule violations

255
Q

Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)

A

Direct, deliberate destruction of body tissue in the absence of any intent to die, characterized by strong emotional and physiological response to negative events

256
Q

Personality disorders

A

Enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, or relating to others or controlling impulses that deviate from cultural expectations and cause distress or impaired functioning; failure to take others’ perspectives

257
Q

How are personality disorders organized?

A

1) odd/eccentric
2) dramatic/erratic
3) anxious/inhibited

258
Q

Antisocial personality disorder (APD)

A

A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood; comorbid with conduct disorder in childhood

259
Q

Psychological treatment

A

Where people interact with a clinician, emphasizing the environment and the relationship between the clinician and the patient

260
Q

Biological treatment

A

The brain is treated with drugs, surgery, or some other direct intervention

261
Q

Pros of diagnosis

A
  • insurance compensation
  • clear communication between relevant parties
  • allows for research
  • allows for treatment
  • disability services
262
Q

Cons of diagnosis

A
  • effects of stigma
  • cultural norms
  • some diagnoses are too broad and fail to recognize individual differences
263
Q

Evidence-based treatment

A

Treatments that have research supporting that they work; client preference and clinician recommendations considered

264
Q

Efficacy

A

Does it work in a controlled environment?

265
Q

Effectiveness

A

Does it work in the real world?

266
Q

Psychoanalysis

A

Assumes that human behavior is fueled by unconscious motives; emphasizes the patient’s past and their relational patterns and attachments; focuses on client and the therapy process

267
Q

Psychodynamic treatment

A

Modernized take on psychoanalysis where the therapist is a blank slate allowing for free association and insight on the part of the patient

268
Q

Resistance

A

The patient’s reluctance to cooperate with treatment; they don’t want to confront unpleasant thoughts

269
Q

Transference

A

The patient begins to unconsciously apply their attitudes and expectations about someone else onto the therapist

270
Q

Projection

A

The patient unconsciously applies their own emotions and attitudes about themselves onto someone else

271
Q

Humanistic therapy

A

Person-centered therapy that emphasizes that people have agency and the ability to self-actualize; assumes human nature is generally positive and that problems stem from alienation and loneliness, therefore should be about creating the best environment for the patient

272
Q

Techniques of humanistic therapy

A
  • unconditional positive regard
  • congruence; where the therapist isn’t the expert, rather is there to guide the patient’s own expertise
  • empathy
273
Q

Behavioral therapy

A

Assumes that all behavior is caused by external factors and that all subjective mental entities are just made up; focuses on classical and operant conditioning

274
Q

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

A

Says that it’s not enough to just address behavior, we must address emotion, thought, and physical response; places emphasis on core beliefs and maladaptive conditions or interpretations that underlie psychopathology; problem-focused and action oriented

275
Q

Techniques of CBT

A
  • functional analysis
  • self-monitoring
  • thought records
  • behavioral activation
  • motivational interviewing
276
Q

Functional analysis

A

Patient considers what their behavior is doing for them:
Antecedence
Behavior
Consequences

277
Q

Self monitoring

A

Patient consciously thinks about and notes their daily thoughts

278
Q

Thought records

A

Patient tries to gather evidence that supports or goes against negative and emotional thoughts in order to create a more balanced and productive statement

279
Q

Behavioral activation

A

Usually used to treat depression; the patient purposely schedules new activities to create novelty and positive emotions

280
Q

Motivational interviewing

A

Usually to treat addiction or adherence/nonadherence issues; patient freely talks about a habit they may want to change and why or why not they want to change it

281
Q

Exposure and response prevention

A

Targets fear associated with several mental disorders; intends to disrupt the compulsions in order to teach that the patient can withstand the anxiety without the short-term relief that compulsions provide

282
Q

Techniques of exposure and response prevention

A
  • exposure hierarchy: working through the hierarchy of slightly scary to very scary
  • imaginal scripts: used for fears of things that may be physically dangerous or rare
  • tape loops: recording intrusive thoughts on tape and playing them back
283
Q

Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)

A

Emphasizes the idea that two seemingly opposite things can be true at once, and that rational and emotional thoughts can exist together

284
Q

Four core modules of DBT

A

Mindfulness, distress tolerance, emotion regulation, interpersonal effectiveness

285
Q

Techniques of DBT

A
  • multicomponent support
  • diary card
  • chain analysis
  • hierarchical approach to treatment targets
  • mindfulness
286
Q

Psychotherapy

A

An interaction between a socially sanctioned clinician and someone suffering from a psychological problem, with the goal of providing support or relief from the problem

287
Q

Eclectic psychotherapy

A

A form of psychotherapy that involves drawing on techniques from different forms of therapy, depending on the client and the problem

288
Q

Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT)

A

A form of psychotherapy that focuses on helping clients improve current relationships with the assumptions that this will help symptoms to subside

289
Q

Gestalt therapy

A

Therapy with the goal of helping the client become aware of their thoughts, behaviors, experiences, and feelings and to “own” or take responsibility for them

290
Q

Token economy

A

Involves giving clients “tokens” for desired behaviors that they can later trade for rewards; usually used in addiction therapy

291
Q

Exposure therapy

A

Approach to treatment of the client that involves confronting an emotion-arousing stimulus directly and repeatedly, ultimately leading to a decrease in the emotional response

292
Q

Cognitive restructuring

A

Teaches clients to question the automatic beliefs, assumptions, and predictions that often lead to negative emotions and to replace negative thinking with more realistic and positive beliefs

293
Q

Group therapy

A

A type of therapy in which multiple participants who often don’t know each other at the outset work on their individual problems in a group atmosphere

294
Q

Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)

A

Treats PTSD, depression, and anxiety by emphasizing that the root of psychopathology is an unhealthy regulation of internal processes and general lack of clarity around values

295
Q

Antipsychotic drugs

A

Treat schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders

296
Q

Psychopharmacology

A

The study of drug effects on psychological states and symptoms

297
Q

Antianxiety medications

A

Drugs that help reduce a person’s experience of fear or anxiety; benzodiazepines that facilitate GABA

298
Q

Antidepressants

A

A class of drugs that help lift people’s moods; usually block the reuptake of norepinephrine, serotonin (SSRIs), and dopamine

299
Q

Mood stabilizers

A

Medications used to suppress swings between mania and depression

300
Q

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

A

A treatment that involves inducing a brief seizure by delivering an electrical shock to the brain

301
Q

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A

A treatment that involves placing a powerful pulsed magnet over a person’s scalp to alter neuronal activity in the brain

302
Q

Treatment illusions

A

People may improve their mental health because of natural improvement, placebo effects, or reconstructive memory

303
Q

Cultural humility in treatment

A

Awareness that there are cultural differences underlying behaviors, emotions, thoughts, symptoms, etc., and an understanding that you will never completely understand someone else’s cultural background

304
Q

Iatrogenic illness

A

A disorder or symptom that occurs as a result of a medical or psychotherapeutic treatment itself

305
Q

What factors may be barriers to therapy access?

A
  • lack of providers
  • high cost
  • stigma
  • lack of knowledge

PSYC 100 (6 decks)

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