Exam 4: Final Exam Flashcards
Personality
An individual’s characteristic style of behaving, thinking, and feeling.
Studied through description, explanation, and quantitative measurement
Prior events
Events in the past that shaped personality
Anticipated events
Events that motivate a person to reveal personality characteristics
Self-report measurement
A method in which people provide subjective info about their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, typically via questionnaire or interview
- Ten-Item Personality Inventory
- MMPI-2-RF
Validity scales
Alleviate response style biases such as:
- attitude toward test taking
- tendency to distort answers
MMPI-2-RF
A well-researched clinical questionnaire to assess personality and psychological problems.
Self-descriptive statements answered by true/false/can’t say
Projective techniques
Designed to reveal inner aspects of individuals’ personalities by analysis of their responses to a standard series of ambiguous stimuli; generally seen as unreliable and don’t reveal valid info or predictions
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Individual interpretations of the meaning of a set of unstructured inkblots are analyzed to identify inner feelings and interpret personality structure
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Respondents reveal underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world through stories about ambiguous pictures of people
Automated behavior identification
Allows for removal of human influence.
For example: the EAR (electronically activated recorder) sampled hundreds of participants and found that women and men are equally talkative
Social media analysis
For example: 700 million words and phrases posted on FaceBook by 75,000 people were compared to results of personality tests of the same people; revealed certain trends
Examples of utilizing technology to measure personality?
- Automated behavior identification
- Natural Language Processing
- Social media analysis
Psychological constructs and problems measured through the MMPI-2-RF
- clinical
- somatic
- internalizing
- externalizing
- interpersonal
The Trait Approach
Categorizes differences among individuals through description, not explanation
Trait
A relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and consistent way; limited by the infinite adjectives that can be used to describe traits
How can traits be used to explain behavior?
- The trait is a preexisting disposition that causes behavior; these are found through inventories
- The trait is a motivation that guides behavior; these are found through projective tests
Core traits
Adjectives that describe personality; can be organized in a hierarchical pattern through factor analysis
Factor analysis
Sorts trait terms or self-descriptions into a small number of underlying dimensions; researchers argue about how many core factors exist
Big Five (five-factor analysis)
- openness to experience
- conscientiousness
- extraversion
- agreeableness
- neuroticism
Openness to experience
imaginative vs. down to earth
variety vs. routine
independent vs. conforming
Conscientiousness
organized vs. disorganized
careful vs. careless
self-disciplined vs. weak-willed
Extraversion
social vs. retiring
fun-loving vs. sober
affectionate vs. reserved
Agreeableness
softhearted vs. ruthless
trusting vs. suspicious
helpful vs. uncooperative
Neuroticism
worried vs. calm
insecure vs. secure
self-pitying vs. self-satisfied
What can cause changes in personality?
- brain damage
- brain pathologies
- pharmaceutical treatment
- mind-altering drugs
How do genetics contribute to behavior?
- heritability of personality is about 40%
- heritability of Big Five range from 31% to 41%
- conservatism vs. liberalism linked to chromosomes associated with mental flexibility
How does gender impact personality?
Gender differences increase over time, suggesting cultural influence
- boys show more external emotion and anger; men then become physically aggressive, assertive, and confident
- girls show more internal emotion, sadness, and anxiety; women become more verbal, nurturing, and insecure
Social Role Theory
Personality differences between women and men arise from cultural standards and expectations
Bem Sex Role Inventory
Participants rate themselves on items that are either “masculine” or “feminine” without seeing gender association; revealed that psychological androgyny has positive associations including less depression
Neurophysiological associations of extraversion vs. introversion
extraversion: reticular formation not as easily stimulated, so they seek more mental stimulation
introversion: cortex more easily stimulated and overwhelmed
Behavioral activation system (BAS)
“Go” system; activates approach behavior in response to anticipation of reward, more reactive in extraverts
Behavioral inhibition system (BIS)
“Stop” system; inhibits behavior in response to stimuli signaling punishment, more reactive in introverts
Psychodynamic approach
Regards personality as formed by needs, strivings, and desires largely operating outside of awareness; motives can produce emotional disorders
Defense mechanisms
Unconscious coping mechanisms that reduce anxiety generated by threats from unacceptable impulses
Rationalization
Supplying a reasonable-sounding explanation for unacceptable feelings and behaviors to conceal one’s underlying motives or feelings
Repression
Removing painful experiences, sources of anxiety, and unacceptable impulses from the conscious mind
Denial
Refusing to acknowledge the source of anxiety
Reaction formation
Unconsciously replacing threatening inner wishes and fantasies with an exaggerated version of their opposite
Projection
Attributing one’s own threatening feelings, motives, or impulses to another person or group
Regression
Ego deals with internal conflict and perceived threat by reverting to immature behavior or earlier stage of development
Displacement
Shifting unacceptable wishes or drives to a neutral or less threatening alternative
Identification
Helps deal with feelings of threat and anxiety by enabling us to unconsciously take on the characteristics of another person who seems more powerful or able to cope
Sublimation
Channeling unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives into socially acceptable and culturally enhancing activities
Humanistic-Existential Approach
Combines humanistic psychology and existential psychology; says that humans make healthy choices that create their personalities
Humanistic psychology
Emphasizes positive, optimistic view of human nature, goodness, and potential for growth
Existential psychology
Emphasizes the individual as a responsible agent, free to create their life while negotiating the issue of meaning and the reality of death
Self-actualization tendency
The human motive toward realizing our inner potential through the pursuit of knowledge, expression of creativity, desire to give to society, etc.
Flow experience
Caused by engagement in tasks that match our abilities and don’t challenge us too excessively. This reflects our realization of potential and height of personality development
Existential approach
A school of thought that regards personality as governed by an individual’s ongoing choices and decisions in the context of the realities of life and death.
Argues that we should deal with issues directly instead of using defenses and accept the pain of existence
Angst
The anxiety of full being
- why am I here?
- what is the meaning of life?
Social-cognitive approach
Views personality in terms of how a person thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them; emphasizes perception of environment
Person-situation controversy
The question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors, in contrast to the basic idea that personality characteristics cause people to behave in the same way across situations and over time
Outcome expectancies
Goals and expectations that lead to a characteristic style of behavior fuel a person’s assumptions about the likely consequences of a future behavior
Locus of control
A person’s tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment; measures how much control we believe we have
Personal constructs
Dimensions people use in making sense of their experiences. Therefore, we see the social world from different perspectives that lead us to behave in different ways based on how we perceive those behaviors
Self-recognition
We can recognize ourselves in the mirror by 18 months, which enables reflexive thinking and leads to self-concept and self-esteem
Self-concept
What we think about ourselves; our explicit knowledge of our own behaviors, traits, and other personal characteristics; developed from social experiences and impacts behavior throughout life
“I” vs. “Me”
“I” is a perspective of all personal experiences such as thoughts, acts, etc.
“Me” is the self that is known as an object in the world and can be described by physical characteristics, activities, personality traits, social roles, etc.
Autobiographical memory
Knowledge of self, organized into self-narrative and self-schema, which don’t always align
Self-narrative
A story we tell about ourselves
Self-schema
Sets of traits we use to define ourselves
Sense of self
Largely constructed through relationships with others and feedback
Self-verification
Tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self-concept
Self-esteem
The extent to which an individual likes, values, and accepts the self; arises from comparison with others, and being valued and accepted by others
- Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
Self-serving bias
People’s tendency to take credit for their successes but downplay responsibility for their failures
Narcissism
A grandiose view of the self, combined with a tendency to seek admiration from and exploit others
Implicit egotism
Argues that people are generally unaware of their preference for things similar to themselves
Self-compassion
Correlated with self-esteem; predicts reactions when confronted with failure and hardship, and is protective in the face of social rejection
Three forms of self-compassion
isolation vs. common humanity
self-judgment vs. self-kindness
over-identification vs. mindfulness
Social psychology
The study of the causes and consequences of sociality, including the effects of social variables on individual behavior, attitudes, perceptions, and motives
Social role
Social-defined pattern of behavior
Rules
Behavioral guidelines
Social norms
Expectation a group has for its members
Social cognition
Process by which people select, interpret, and categorize the behaviors of others
Social perception
Process by which people come to understand and categorize the behaviors of others
Attribution theory
Describes the ways the social perceiver uses information to generate causal explanations
Covariation model
Claims we rely on consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus when making attributions
Situational attribution
Low consistency, high consensus, high distinctiveness
Dispositional attribution
High consistency, low consensus, low distinctiveness
Consistency
Does the person perform this action regularly?
Consensus
Do most people perform this action?
Distinctiveness
Does the person perform similar actions?
Correspondence bias
Tendency to make a dispositional attribution when a person’s behavior was caused by the situation
Actor-observer effect
Tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviors while making dispositional attributions for the identical behaviors of others
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Prediction modifies interactions so as to produce what is expected
Behavioral confirmation
People behave in ways that elicit specific expected reactions and then use those reactions to confirm their beliefs
Aggression
Intentional behavior whose purpose is to harm another person where the victim wants to avoid harm
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
Animals aggress when their goals are frustrated/obstructed
Proactive aggression
Aggression that is planned and purposeful
Reactive aggression
Aggression that occurs spontaneously in response to a negative affective state
How do different genders aggress differently?
- due to aggression fueled by testosterone, men are responsible for the large majority of violent crime
- women commit more relational and indirect aggression
Cooperation
Behavior by two or more individuals that can lead to mutual benefit, but can be risky
Explain the Prisoner’s Dilemma
You and Tucker are being questioned for a crime in two separate rooms. If you both refuse to sign the document, then you both serve 1 year. If you refuse to sign but Tucker does sign, then he goes free and you serve 3 years. However, if you sign and Tucker doesn’t, then you go free and Tucker serves 3 years. But if you sign and Tucker signs, then you both serve 2 years. How do you know what to do?
Group
A collection of people who have something in common that distinguishes them from others
Prejudice
An evaluation of another person based solely on their group membership
In-group favoritism
Being positively prejudiced toward members of your own group
What four factors are present in group decision-making?
- not fully capitalizing on individual expertise
- common-knowledge effect
- group polarization
- groupthink
Common-knowledge effect
The tendency for group discussions to focus on info that all members share
Group polarization
The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than any member would have made alone
Groupthink
The tendency for groups to filter out undesirable input and reach consensus in order to facilitate interpersonal harmony
Deindividuation
When immersion in a group causes people to become less concerned with their personal values, which leads to groups acting poorly when together and doing things they would never do alone
Diffusion of responsibility
The tendency of individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting in the same way
Social loafing
Tendency of people to expend less effort when they are in a group than when alone
Bystander intervention effect
When the act of helping strangers in an emergency situation is greatly diminished by diffusion of responsibility when others are nearby
Prosocial behavior
The tendency to help others
Altruism
Intentional behavior that benefits another at a potential cost to oneself and with no reward
Inclusive fitness
The process by which evolution selects individuals who cooperate with their relatives for the benefits of passing genes rather than individual survival
Reciprocal altruism
Behavior that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future
Attraction
A feeling of preference caused by situational, physical, and psychological factors; facilitated by proximity
The “Love Bridge” experiment
Physiological arousal can be misinterpreted as attraction
Mere exposure effect
Tendency for linking of a stimulus to increase with the frequency of exposure to that stimulus
How does gender impact mate selectivity?
- women are more selective about sex because of the potential cost
- all genders are choosier and more cautious when approached, but less picky when approaching
Homophily
The tendency for people to like others who are similar to themselves
Love
Strong affection for another person due to kinship, personal ties, sexual attraction, admiration, common interests, etc.
Sternberg’s Three Components of Love
Intimacy, commitment, and passion
Empty love
Love with just commitment
Companionate love
Love with commitment and intimacy; an experience involving affection, trust, and concern for a partner’s well-being
Friendship love/liking
Love with just intimacy
Romantic love
Love with intimacy and passion
Infatuated love
Love with just passion; an experience involving feelings of euphoria, intimacy, and intense sexual attraction
Fatuous love
Love with passion and commitment
Consummate love
Love with commitment, intimacy, and passion; the most complete and fulfilling type of love
Why do people divorce?
Comparison level for alternatives: the cost-benefit ratio that a person believes they could attain in another relationship
Normative influence
Occurs when another person’s behavior provides info about what is appropriate; can be exploited to gain compliance
- norm of reciprocity
- door-in-face
- foot-in-door
What are the three motives that make us susceptible to social influence?
- hedonic motive
- approval motive
- accuracy motive
What are the three parts of the approval motive?
- normative influence
- conformity
- obedience
Conformity
The tendency to do what other do simply because other are doing it, and we assume this means it is the appropriate and expected behavior
- Asch’s line tests
Obedience
Altering behavior in response to a request from an authority figure
- Milgram’s shock study
What are the three parts of the accuracy motive?
- informational influence
- persuasion
- consistency and dissonance
Attitude
Enduring positive or negative evaluation of an object or event; tells us what we should do
Belief
Enduring piece of knowledge about an object or event; tells us how to do things
Informational influence
Occurs when another person’s behavior provides info about what is good or right
Persuasion
When attitudes or beliefs are influenced by a communication from another person; systematic and heuristic
Systematic persuasion
Process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to reason
Heuristics persuasion
Process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to habit or emotion
Consistency and dissonance
People evaluate the accuracy of new beliefs by assessing their consistency with old beliefs; can lead to cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance
State of conflict someone experiences after making a decision, taking an action, or being exposed to information that is contrary to prior beliefs, feelings, or values
Stereotype
A generalized belief about members of a group
Discrimination
Inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people based on their group membership
Category-based inferences
Inferences based on information about the categories to which a person belongs
Target-based inferences
Inferences based on information about an individual’s behavior
Behavioral confirmation
The tendency of targets to behave as observers expect them to behave
Stereotype threat
The target’s fear of confirming the observer’s negative stereotypes
Perceptual confirmation
The tendency of observers to see what they expect to see
Subtyping
The tendency of observers to think of targets who disconfirm stereotypes as “exceptions to the rule”
Norm of reciprocity
The unwritten rule that people should benefit those who have benefited them
Door-in-the-face technique
An influence strategy that involves getting someone to accept a small request by first getting them to refuse a large request
Foot-in-the-door technique
Making a small request and then following it with a larger request
Social cognitive theory
Views prejudice as an attitude acquired through direct instruction, modeling, and other social influences
Realistic conflict theory
Conflict between groups increases prejudice and discrimination
Social identity theory
The formation of a person’s identity within a particular social group is explained by social categorization, social identity, and social comparison
“Jigsaw classroom”
Educational technique in which each individual is given only part of the information needed to solve a problem, forcing individuals to work together to find the solution
Stressors
Specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person’s well-being
Stress
Physiological and psychological response to internal or external stressors
Health Psychology
Subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of psychical illness and the maintenance of health
Chronic stressors
Sources of stress that occur continuously or repeatedly; environment, discrimination
Allostatic load
Fight-or-flight response
An emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
A three-stage physiological stress response that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered
1. alarm phase
2. resistance phase
3. exhaustion phase
Alarm phase
Body calls on stored fat and muscle to produce energy and rapidly mobilize
Resistance phase
Body continues drawing on stored resources, and adapts to high state of arousal by shutting down unnecessary processes such as digestion, menstruation, etc.
Exhaustion phase
Body’s resistance collapses, defenses become damaged, and the body becomes weak and susceptible to infection, tumor growth, organ damage, etc.
Telomeres
Caps at the ends of the chromosomes that prevent chromosomes from sticking to each other
Telomerase
An enzyme that rebuilds telomeres at the tips of chromosomes
How does stress impact telomeres and aging?
Exposure to stress causes accelerated cell division, during which chromosomes are repeatedly copied, their telomeres shortening with each division. When telomeres are too short, cell division stops, which happens much sooner when the body is exposed to stress
Immune system
A complex response system that protects the body from bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances
Psychoneuroimmunology
Study of how the immune system responds to psychological variables
How does chronic stress affect the immune system?
Stressors can cause hormones to flood the brain, wearing down the immune system and making it less able to fight invaders
How does stress affect cardiovascular health?
Stress causes blood pressure to go up, gradually damaging blood vessels and eventually causing heart disease
Type A behavior pattern
A tendency toward easily aroused hostility, impatience, sense of time urgency, and competitive achievement strivings; correlated with rates of heart disease
Primary appraisal
The interpretation of a stimulus as being stressful or not
Secondary appraisal
Determining whether the stressor is something you can handle/have control over or not (threat or challenge)
Threat
A stressor you believe you might not be able to overcome
Challenge
A stressor you feel fairly confident you can control
Burnout
A state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion resulting from long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation
Stress management techniques
Mind management: coping and reframing
Body management: meditation and movement
Repressive coping
Avoiding feelings, thoughts, or situations that are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint
Rational coping
Facing the stressor and working to overcome it
- step 1: acceptance
- step 2: exposure
- step 3: understanding
Reframing
Finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat
- Stress inoculation training (SIT)
Stress inoculation training (SIT)
Reframing technique that helps people cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about situations
Meditation
The practice of intentional contemplation
Relaxation therapy
A technique for reducing tension by consciously relaxing muscles of the body
Relaxation response
A condition of reduced muscle tension, cortical activity, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure
Biofeedback
The use of an external monitoring device to obtain information about a bodily function and then to possibly gain control over that function
- EEG neurofeedback
- visual or audio feedback
Social support
Aid gained through interacting with others; a form of situation management and stress reduction
How does social support differ by gender?
Women seek support under stress; tend-and-befriend.
Men less likely to seek support and rather revert to fight-or-flight.
Situation management methods
- social support
- religious and spiritual practice
- humor
- avoiding procrastination
Religiosity and spirituality
Help in managing stress
- Religiosity: engagement in the practices of a particular religion
- Spirituality: having a belief in and engagement with some higher power
Sickness response
Coordinated, adaptive set of reactions to illness organized by the brain; also illustrated in depression
- withdrawal from activity and eating
- immune response activates white cells
- proteins activate vagus nerve
Pain
A psychological state that can be difficult to measure; scales with external expressions sometimes used
How do placebos impact the brain?
Placebos cause a clinically significant psychological or physiological response to therapeutically inert substances or procedures; trigger the release of endorphins and lower brain activation in areas associated with pain
Psychosomatic illness
An interaction between mind and body that can produce illness
Somatic symptom disorders
Where a person with at least one bodily symptom displays significant health-related anxiety, expresses disproportionate concerns about their symptoms, and devotes excessive time and energy to their symptoms or health concerns
Somatoform disorders
People experience unexplained medical conditions generated by the mind; includes hypochondriasis
Sick role
Socially recognized set of rights and obligations linked with illness; provides exemptions and obligations
Malingering
Feigning medical or psychological symptoms to achieve something one wants
Optimism
- optimism aids in maintenance of psychological health in the face of physical adversity
- individual level of optimism or pessimism tends to be stable over time
Hardiness
- resistance to stress
- characterized by commitment, sense of control, acceptance of challenge
Self-regulation
The exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards
Mental disorder
Persistent disturbance or dysfunction in behavior, thoughts, or emotions that cause significant distress or impairment
Medical model
Abnormal psychological experiences are conceptualized as illnesses that have:
1. biological and environmental causes
2. defined symptoms
3. possible cures
Signs vs. symptoms
Signs: objectively observed indicators of a disorder
Symptoms: subjectively reported behaviors, thoughts, and emotions
DSM-I
Classification system that described the features used to diagnose each recognized mental disorder; written in 1952
DMS-II
First revision of the DSM that provides common language for talking about disorders; written in 1968
DSM-III and DSM-IV
Written in 1980 and 1994; provided detailed list of symptoms/diagnostic criteria for 200+ disorders and improves reliability in diagnosis of mental disorder
DSM-5
Written in 2013; describes 22 major categories for 200+ mental disorders and lists specific criteria that must be used for diagnosis, describes conditions as formal disorders and includes cultural considerations
Comorbidity
Co-occurrence of two or more disorders in a single individual
Biopsychosocial perspective
Explains mental disorders as the result of interactions among biological, psychological, and social factors
Diathesis-stress model
Suggests that a person may be predisposed for a mental disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress
Diathesis
- brain structure
- hormones
- early learning
- memory bias
- genes
Stress
- abuse
- physical illness
- trauma
- loss
Research Domain Criteria Initiative (RDoC)
An initiative that attempts to shift the focus away from diagnosing based on the observed surface symptoms and towards an understanding of underlying causes and processes that lead to disordered behaviors
Stigma
Negative perception and ignorance attached to labeling people with psychological disorders
Anxiety disorder
The class of mental disorders in which anxiety is the predominant feature; comorbid with depression and other types of anxiety
Phobic disorders
Characterized by marked, persistent, and excessive fear and avoidance of specific objects, activities, or situations; is irrational and has learned components
Specific phobia
An irrational fear of a particular object or situation that markedly interferes with an individual’s ability to function
Social phobia
An irrational fear of being publicly humiliated or embarrassed
Agoraphobia
Specific phobia involving fear of public spaces
Preparedness theory
The basis of understanding phobias; suggests that people are instinctively predisposed toward certain fears (Seligman)
- evolution, heritability, temperament
- classic conditioning
Panic disorder
The sudden occurrence of multiple psychological and physiological symptoms that contribute to a feeling of stark terror; more common in women, but many people will report having at least one panic attack
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
Chronic excessive worry accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbance; comorbid with depression
What causes GAD?
Neurotransmitter imbalance of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and can be treated by benzodiazepines or SSRIs. The imbalance is not completely understood, but environmental factors are often involved (diathesis-stress model)
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and ritualistic behaviors (compulsions) designed to fend off those thoughts interfere significantly with an individual’s functioning; supports preparedness theory
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Chronic physiological arousal, recurrent unwanted thoughts or images of the trauma, and avoidance of things that call the traumatic event to mind
How does PTSD show up in the brain?
Heightened amygdala activity, decreased medial prefrontal cortex activity; reduced hippocampal size is a preexisting condition that makes a person more susceptible to PTSD
Mood disorders
Mental disorders that have mood disturbance as their predominant feature
- depression
- bipolar disorder
Major depressive disorder
Characterized by a severely depressed mood and/or inability to experience pleasure that lasts two or more weeks and is accompanied by feelings of worthlessness, lethargy, and sleep and appetite disturbance
Persistent depressive disorder
The same cognitive and bodily problems as in depression are present, but they are less severe and last longer, persisting for at least two years
Double depression
Co-occurrence of major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder; defined as moderately depressed mood that persists for at least two years and is punctuated by periods of major depression
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
Recurrent depressive episodes in a seasonal pattern, most commonly beginning in fall or winter and ending in spring; more experienced by women
Postpartum depression
Form of depression experienced by women after childbirth, partially due to abruptly changing hormone balances
How much do genetics account for depression?
Major depressive disorder is 33% to 45% heritable
How do genes and the environment interact in depression?
Short alleles on the serotonin transporter gene are associated with less efficient serotonergic functioning and increased risk of depression, especially when one experiences stressful life conditions
Helplessness theory
Individuals who are prone to depression automatically attribute negative experiences to causes that are internal (their own fault), stable (unlikely to change), and global (widespread)
Bipolar disorder
A condition characterized by cycles of abnormal, persistent high mood (mania) and low mood (depression)
- highly heritable
- easily confused with major depression or schizophrenia
Expressed emotion
A measure of how much hostility, criticism, and emotional overinvolvement people communicate when speaking about a family member with a mental disorder; family members high in expressed emotion are associated with relapse across mental disorders
How do some mental disorders overlap?
Genetic risk factors associated with bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, major depression, autism spectrum disorder, and ADHD overlap and cause overlapping symptoms
Schizophrenia
Psychotic disorder characterized by the profound disruption of basic psychological processes; a distorted perception of reality; altered or blunted emotion; and disturbances in thought, motivation, and behavior
Positive symptoms of schizophrenia
Thoughts and behaviors, such as delusions and hallucinations, not seen in those without the disorder
Hallucinations
False perceptual experiences that have a compelling sense of being real despite the absence of external stimulation
Delusions
False beliefs, often bizarre and grandiose, that are maintained in spite of their irrationality
Disorganized speech
A severe disruption of verbal communication in which ideas shift rapidly and incoherently among unrelated topics
Grossly disorganized behavior
Behavior that is inappropriate for the situation or ineffective in attaining goals
Catatonic behavior
A marked decrease in all movement or an increase in muscular rigidity and overactivity
Negative symptoms
Deficits in or disruptions of normal emotions and behaviors
Cognitive symptoms
Deficits in cognitive abilities, specifically in execute functioning, attention, and working memory
Medication-induced movement disorders
Motor disturbances arising from medications of the sort commonly used to treat schizophrenia
Biological factors of schizophrenia
- Genetics play a role; schizophrenia is highly heritable.
- Prenatal and perinatal environment may play a role.
- Dopamine hypothesis
- Dramatic synaptic pruning and brain tissue loss
Dopamine hypothesis
The idea that schizophrenia involves an excess of dopamine activity
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
A condition beginning in early childhood in which a person shows persistent communication deficits, as well as restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviors, interests, or activities; impaired capacity for empathizing, combined with superior systematizing
How does the DSM-5 subdivide ASD?
- autistic disorder
- Asperger’s disorder
- childhood disintegrative disorder
- other pervasive developmental disorder
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
A persistent pattern of severe problems with inattention and/or hyperactivity or impulsiveness that cause significant impairments in functioning; extremely heritable at 76%
What is the diagnostic requirement for ADHD?
Behavior occurs for at least six months in at least two settings (home and school), and must have been present before age 12
Conduct disorder
A persistent pattern of deviant behavior involving aggression to people or animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, or serious rule violations
Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)
Direct, deliberate destruction of body tissue in the absence of any intent to die, characterized by strong emotional and physiological response to negative events
Personality disorders
Enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, or relating to others or controlling impulses that deviate from cultural expectations and cause distress or impaired functioning; failure to take others’ perspectives
How are personality disorders organized?
1) odd/eccentric
2) dramatic/erratic
3) anxious/inhibited
Antisocial personality disorder (APD)
A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood; comorbid with conduct disorder in childhood
Psychological treatment
Where people interact with a clinician, emphasizing the environment and the relationship between the clinician and the patient
Biological treatment
The brain is treated with drugs, surgery, or some other direct intervention
Pros of diagnosis
- insurance compensation
- clear communication between relevant parties
- allows for research
- allows for treatment
- disability services
Cons of diagnosis
- effects of stigma
- cultural norms
- some diagnoses are too broad and fail to recognize individual differences
Evidence-based treatment
Treatments that have research supporting that they work; client preference and clinician recommendations considered
Efficacy
Does it work in a controlled environment?
Effectiveness
Does it work in the real world?
Psychoanalysis
Assumes that human behavior is fueled by unconscious motives; emphasizes the patient’s past and their relational patterns and attachments; focuses on client and the therapy process
Psychodynamic treatment
Modernized take on psychoanalysis where the therapist is a blank slate allowing for free association and insight on the part of the patient
Resistance
The patient’s reluctance to cooperate with treatment; they don’t want to confront unpleasant thoughts
Transference
The patient begins to unconsciously apply their attitudes and expectations about someone else onto the therapist
Projection
The patient unconsciously applies their own emotions and attitudes about themselves onto someone else
Humanistic therapy
Person-centered therapy that emphasizes that people have agency and the ability to self-actualize; assumes human nature is generally positive and that problems stem from alienation and loneliness, therefore should be about creating the best environment for the patient
Techniques of humanistic therapy
- unconditional positive regard
- congruence; where the therapist isn’t the expert, rather is there to guide the patient’s own expertise
- empathy
Behavioral therapy
Assumes that all behavior is caused by external factors and that all subjective mental entities are just made up; focuses on classical and operant conditioning
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
Says that it’s not enough to just address behavior, we must address emotion, thought, and physical response; places emphasis on core beliefs and maladaptive conditions or interpretations that underlie psychopathology; problem-focused and action oriented
Techniques of CBT
- functional analysis
- self-monitoring
- thought records
- behavioral activation
- motivational interviewing
Functional analysis
Patient considers what their behavior is doing for them:
Antecedence
Behavior
Consequences
Self monitoring
Patient consciously thinks about and notes their daily thoughts
Thought records
Patient tries to gather evidence that supports or goes against negative and emotional thoughts in order to create a more balanced and productive statement
Behavioral activation
Usually used to treat depression; the patient purposely schedules new activities to create novelty and positive emotions
Motivational interviewing
Usually to treat addiction or adherence/nonadherence issues; patient freely talks about a habit they may want to change and why or why not they want to change it
Exposure and response prevention
Targets fear associated with several mental disorders; intends to disrupt the compulsions in order to teach that the patient can withstand the anxiety without the short-term relief that compulsions provide
Techniques of exposure and response prevention
- exposure hierarchy: working through the hierarchy of slightly scary to very scary
- imaginal scripts: used for fears of things that may be physically dangerous or rare
- tape loops: recording intrusive thoughts on tape and playing them back
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)
Emphasizes the idea that two seemingly opposite things can be true at once, and that rational and emotional thoughts can exist together
Four core modules of DBT
Mindfulness, distress tolerance, emotion regulation, interpersonal effectiveness
Techniques of DBT
- multicomponent support
- diary card
- chain analysis
- hierarchical approach to treatment targets
- mindfulness
Psychotherapy
An interaction between a socially sanctioned clinician and someone suffering from a psychological problem, with the goal of providing support or relief from the problem
Eclectic psychotherapy
A form of psychotherapy that involves drawing on techniques from different forms of therapy, depending on the client and the problem
Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT)
A form of psychotherapy that focuses on helping clients improve current relationships with the assumptions that this will help symptoms to subside
Gestalt therapy
Therapy with the goal of helping the client become aware of their thoughts, behaviors, experiences, and feelings and to “own” or take responsibility for them
Token economy
Involves giving clients “tokens” for desired behaviors that they can later trade for rewards; usually used in addiction therapy
Exposure therapy
Approach to treatment of the client that involves confronting an emotion-arousing stimulus directly and repeatedly, ultimately leading to a decrease in the emotional response
Cognitive restructuring
Teaches clients to question the automatic beliefs, assumptions, and predictions that often lead to negative emotions and to replace negative thinking with more realistic and positive beliefs
Group therapy
A type of therapy in which multiple participants who often don’t know each other at the outset work on their individual problems in a group atmosphere
Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)
Treats PTSD, depression, and anxiety by emphasizing that the root of psychopathology is an unhealthy regulation of internal processes and general lack of clarity around values
Antipsychotic drugs
Treat schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders
Psychopharmacology
The study of drug effects on psychological states and symptoms
Antianxiety medications
Drugs that help reduce a person’s experience of fear or anxiety; benzodiazepines that facilitate GABA
Antidepressants
A class of drugs that help lift people’s moods; usually block the reuptake of norepinephrine, serotonin (SSRIs), and dopamine
Mood stabilizers
Medications used to suppress swings between mania and depression
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
A treatment that involves inducing a brief seizure by delivering an electrical shock to the brain
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
A treatment that involves placing a powerful pulsed magnet over a person’s scalp to alter neuronal activity in the brain
Treatment illusions
People may improve their mental health because of natural improvement, placebo effects, or reconstructive memory
Cultural humility in treatment
Awareness that there are cultural differences underlying behaviors, emotions, thoughts, symptoms, etc., and an understanding that you will never completely understand someone else’s cultural background
Iatrogenic illness
A disorder or symptom that occurs as a result of a medical or psychotherapeutic treatment itself
What factors may be barriers to therapy access?
- lack of providers
- high cost
- stigma
- lack of knowledge
