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PSYC 100 > Exam 1: Chapters 1-3 > Flashcards

Exam 1: Chapters 1-3 Flashcards

From textbook: "Chapter 1: The Evolution of Psychological Science" "Chapter 2: Methods in Psychology" "Chapter 3: Neuroscience and Behavior" Class slides: Day 02 - Theories and Perspectives Day 03 - Research Methods Day 05 - Brain and Nervous System

1
Q

Psychology

A

The scientific study of the mind and behavior

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2
Q

Mind

A

The set of private events that happen inside a person; their thoughts and feelings

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3
Q

Behavior

A

The set of public events we say and do; they can be observed

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4
Q

Dualism

A

The view that the mind and body are fundamentally different things: the body is made of material substance while the mind is immaterial. We are “containers” for the mind; developed by Descartes

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5
Q

Materialism

A

The view that all mental phenomena are reducible to physical phenomena: the mind is what the brain does, or the brain is a physical object whose activity is known as “the mind.” This view is favored by modern psychology.
Developed by Hobbes and Ryle

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6
Q

Realism

A

The view that perceptions of the physical world are produced entirely by information from sensory organs: your brain uses only sensory information to create its perceptions, therefore all perceptions are accurate

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7
Q

Idealism

A

The view that perceptions of the physical world are the brain’s interpretation of information from sensory organs: the brain uses sensory information in addition to everything it already knows in order to perceive and interpret. This view is favored by modern psychology

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8
Q

Empiricism

A

The view that all accurate knowledge is acquired through experience and observation; developed by Aristotle.
Contrasts with dogmatism.
The concept of tabula rasa, developed by Locke

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9
Q

Nativism

A

The view that some knowledge is innate rather than acquired: concepts such as space, time, causality, numbers, etc. are innate; developed by Plato

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10
Q

Structuralism

A

An approach to psychology that attempted to isolate and analyze the mind’s basic elements, similarly to how the physical world can be broken into basic elements such as molecules, atoms, etc.

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11
Q

Introspection

A

A technique of structuralism characterized by the analysis of subjective experience; used by Wundt and Titchener in experiments in which participants were asked to explain the events of their mind when presented with various stimuli; helped to identify the basic elements of the mind’s subjective experiences

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12
Q

Why didn’t structuralism and introspection last in the field?

A

Each person’s inner experiences are private and subjective and unable to be accurately known or described

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13
Q

Functionalism

A

An approach to psychology that emphasized the adaptive significance of mental processes; tied to the emerging concept of natural selection

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14
Q

Natural selection

A

The process by which the specific attributes that promote an organism’s survival and reproduction become more prevalent in the population over time. Applied to the mind’s features, this reasoning developed functionalism

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15
Q

Hysteria

A

A loss of function that has no obvious physical origin

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16
Q

Unconscious (noun)

A

The part of the mind that contains information of which people are not aware; “discovered” and studied by Freud

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17
Q

Psychoanalytical theory

A

A general theory that emphasizes the influence of the unconscious on feelings, thoughts, and behaviors; developed by Freud.
States that the mind is a set of largely hidden processes where conscious thoughts and feelings are only on the surface and are influenced by all that we can’t see underneath (anxieties, impulses, desires, etc.)

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18
Q

Psychoanalysis

A

A therapy that aims to give people insight into their unconscious minds.
This practice did not impact experimental psychology, but its other impacts were widespread and great

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19
Q

Behaviorism

A

An approach to psychology that restricts scientific inquiry to observable behavior only; scientists such as Watson saw thoughts and feelings as to subjective to constitute real research; experiments were based entirely on stimulus and response (Pavlov’s dog)

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20
Q

Principle of Reinforcement

A

The idea that any behavior that is rewarded will be repeated and any behavior that isn’t won’t; discovered by Skinner and contributed to behaviorism.
Became an extremely popular, yet controversial, idea as Skinner claimed that free will is an illusion and all human behavior is a product of its consequences

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21
Q

Kurt Lewin

A

Studied leadership, communication, attitude, change, and racial prejudice; argued that behavior is a function of the person’s subjective construal of the environment and stimuli

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22
Q

Social Psychology

A

The study of the causes and consequences of sociality

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23
Q

Solomon Asch

A

Argued that the mind creates theories and then warps facts and observations in order to support them

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24
Q

Max Wertheimer

A

Argued that the mind already has theories about how the world works and that physical stimuli are only part of the equation; studied illusion, perception, and memory; his theories are rooted in idealism

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25
Q

Gestalt Psychology

A

An approach to psychology that emphasized the way in which the mind creates perceptual experiences, and how the mind imposes organization

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26
Q

Frederic Bartlett

A

Argued that memory uses our mind’s theories about how the world works to fill in gaps, often incorrectly; the mind recalls what is expects to recall

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27
Q

Jean Piaget

A

Studied child development and concluded that young children haven’t yet developed their theories about how the world works; sparked an interest in developmental psychology

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28
Q

Developmental Psychology

A

The study of the ways in which psychological phenomena change over the life span

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29
Q

The overthrow of behaviorism

A

In 1959, Noam Chomsky published a scathing critique on Skinner’s newest book and effectively argued why behaviorism is not a valid approach to psychology

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30
Q

Cognitive Psychology

A

The study of human information processing; the creation of the computer helped psychologists compare the mind to software in order to understand its processes; system I and II thinking

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31
Q

Evolutionary Psychology

A

The study of the ways in which the human mind has been shaped by natural selection; contrasts behaviorism by stating that certain associations are easier to learn based on evolutionary experience.
Human minds are not blank slated and are designed by evolution to solve certain problems; this shapes social behavior.
Influenced by Darwin.

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32
Q

How did the entrance of neuroscience impact the field?

A

Allowed psychologists to tie behavior to the physical brain and vice versa; technology such as the fMRI made it possible to study undamaged and living brains (which was previously never done) by showing the different amounts of blood flow in different parts of the brain at certain moments

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33
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience

A

The study of the relationship between the brain and the mind in humans

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34
Q

Behavioral Neuroscience

A

The study of the relationship between the brain and behavior, primarily in non-human animals

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35
Q

Cultural Psychology

A

The study of how culture influences mental life: the values, traditions, and beliefs that we share are important to understanding how we think, feel, and behave. Along with anthropology, is used to explain the psychological differences between people of different cultures

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36
Q

Antropology

A

The study of human societies and cultures; along with cultural psychology, is used to explain the psychological differences between people of different cultures

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37
Q

Dogmatism

A

The practice of developing theories about the body and relying on those beliefs rather than observations

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38
Q

The Scientific Method

A

A procedure for using empirical evidence to establish facts; theories must be analyzed by observation to be confirmed

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39
Q

Theories

A

Hypothetical explanations of natural phenomena; explains how something in the natural world works and why it works that way

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40
Q

Hypothesis

A

A falsifiable (must be able to be proven wrong) prediction made by a theory; if the theory is correct then the hypothesis should be observed

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41
Q

How is the Scientific Method used?

A

A theory is developed -> a falsifiable hypothesis is derived -> the hypothesis is tested through observation

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42
Q

Empirical Method

A

A set of rules and techniques for observation (since human eyes are inaccurate) that uses measurement and description

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43
Q

Why is the Empirical Method different in psychology versus other sciences?

A

Humans are complex, variable, and reactive, which makes their behavior difficult to observe objectively and accurately

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44
Q

How is measurement used in observation?

A
  1. The property being measured must be given an operational definition.
  2. The measurement of the property must be able to be detected with an applicable device, instrument, or test.
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45
Q

Operational definition

A

A description of a property in measurable terms; subject to construct validity (ex: happiness may be measured in smiles per day)

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46
Q

Construct validity

A

The extent to which the thing being measured adequately characterizes the property (ex: the extent to which smiles per day characterizes happiness)

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47
Q

What makes a good measurement detector?

A

Power and reliability

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48
Q

Power

A

A detector’s ability to detect the presence of differences or changes in the magnitude of a property

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49
Q

Reliability

A

A detector’s ability to detect the absence of difference or changes in the magnitude of a property

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50
Q

Demand characteristics

A

Those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects, which makes the accurate observation of human behavior extremely difficult

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51
Q

How can demand characteristics be avoided?

A
  1. Naturalistic observation,
    or if not possible:
  2. Make sure the subjects do not know the purpose of the observation
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52
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

A technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments (unfortunately, this often isn’t a practical method)

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53
Q

Observer bias

A

The tendency for observers’ expectations to influence both what they believe they observed and what they actually observed

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54
Q

How can observer bias and the experimenter effect be avoided?

A

A double-blind study

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55
Q

Double-blind study

A

A study in which neither the researcher nor the participants know how the participants are expected to behave, therefore their respective expectations cannot influence the participant’s behavior or the researcher’s observations

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56
Q

Frequency distribution

A

A graphic representation showing the number of times in which the measurement of a property takes place on each of it possible values

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57
Q

Normal distribution

A

A mathematically defined distribution in which the frequency of measurements is highest in the middle and decreases symmetrically in both directions

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58
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

Brief summary statements that capture the essential information from a frequency distribution; should include central tendency and variability

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59
Q

Central tendency

A

Statements about the value of the measurements that tend to lie near the center or midpoint of the frequency distribution; described by the mode, mean, and median

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60
Q

Mode

A

The value of the most frequently observed measurement

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61
Q

Mean

A

The average value of all the measurements

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62
Q

Median

A

The value that is in the middle of the distribution

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63
Q

Variability

A

Statements about the extent to which the measurements in a frequency distribution differ from each other; should include range and standard deviation

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64
Q

Range

A

The value of the largest measurement in a frequency distribution minus the value of the smallest measurements

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65
Q

Standard deviation

A

A normalized way to describe how each of the measurements in a frequency distribution differs from the mean

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66
Q

Correlation

A

When variations in the value of one variable are synchronized with variations in the value of the other; the presence of this pattern can help to make predictions; pattern has direction and strength

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67
Q

Correlation direction

A
  • Positive means more of one is more of the other
  • Negative means more of one is less of the other
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68
Q

Correlation strength

A

Accuracy (strong, moderately strong, moderately weak, weak)

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69
Q

Correlation coefficient

A

A mathematical measure of both the direction and strength of a correlation; represented by the letter r with a limited range of -1 < r < 1

70
Q

Normal correlation

A

The correlations we observe in the world around us; can have three types of relationships:
1. X causes Y
2. Y causes X
3. Z causes X Y

71
Q

Third-variable problem

A

The natural correlation between two variables cannot be taken as evidence of a causal relationship between them because a third variable may be causing them both

72
Q

Experimentation

A

A technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables; if there are three possible causes of any correlation, then experimentation can eliminate two of them

73
Q

What techniques are used in experimentation?

A

Manipulation and random assignment

74
Q

Manipulation

A

A technique for determining the causal power of a variable by actively changing its value and observing whether the value of the other variable changes as well

75
Q

Random assignment

A

A procedure that assigns participants to a condition by chance; a solution to self-selection

76
Q

Self-selection

A

A problem that occurs when anything about a participant determines the participant’s condition; solved by random assignment

77
Q

Conditions

A

Experimental and control groups that vary in only one way

78
Q

Internal validity

A

An attribute of an experiment that allows it to establish causal relationships; basically everything in the experiment is working correctly

79
Q

External validity

A

An attribute of an experiment in which variables have been operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way

80
Q

Case method

A

A procedure for gathering scientific information by studying a single individual

81
Q

Random sampling

A

A technique for selecting participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample

82
Q

Replication

A

An experiment that uses the same procedures as a previous experiment but with a new sample from the same population

83
Q

Type I error

A

When researchers conclude that there is a causal relationship between two variables when in fact there is not; also known as a false positive or a “fluke”

84
Q

Type II error

A

When researchers conclude that there is not a causal relationship between two variables when in fact there is; also known as a false negative or a “flunk”

85
Q

Replication rate

A

The percentage of experiment replications that come out with the same results as the first experiment

86
Q

What is the relationship between replication rate, type I errors, and type II errors?

A

When an experiment is designed to try to avoid one type of error, the chances of committing the other type of error increase.
If type I errors are avoided, there would be no false positives and replication rates would be high. However, many type II errors would happen and real causal relationships would be missed.

87
Q

Why do humans find it difficult to think critically?

A
  1. We see what we want and expect to see
  2. We accept info we already agree with and look for alternatives to info we don’t already agree with
  3. We tend to ignore what we can’t see; we don’t notice absences
88
Q

The Belmont Report

A

A document regarding the three basic ethical rules of psychological research

89
Q

The APA Ethical Code

A

A modernized document regarding several detailed ethical standards for psychological research

90
Q

Phrenology

A

Developed by Gall; the now-defunct theory that specific mental abilities are localized in specific brain regions and that the size of these regions varies based on the person’s level of ability

91
Q

Paul Broca

A

Studied brain-damaged patients to link localization to ability, noticed that damage to a part of the brain impairs specific mental functions

92
Q

Physiology in early psychology

A

Helmholtz: applied stimulus to different parts of the body to measure their reaction times in order to estimate how fast nerve impulses travel.
Wundt: scientific psychology should analyze the subjective experiences of the mind

93
Q

System I thinking

A

Fast, unconscious, instinctual thought

94
Q

System II thinking

A

Slow, deliberate, critical thought

95
Q

Psychodynamic perspective

A

Freud studied how the mind is influenced by unconscious drives and how behavior results from instinct and conflict; studies the id, ego, and superego

96
Q

Id

A

According to Freud, the instinctual and primitive part of the mind that functions on sexual and aggressive drives and hidden thoughts and desires

97
Q

Ego

A

According to Freud, the realistic part of the mind that mediates between the id and the superego

98
Q

Superego

A

According to Freud, the part of the brain that deals with a higher moral conscience

99
Q

Humanistic perspective

A

An approach to psychology that emphasizes a positive view of human nature, an individual capacity for making rational choices, and unconditional positive regard.
Includes Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to achieve full potential and self-actualization.
Carl Rogers developed client-centered therapy that gives no advice and simply allows the expression of feeling

100
Q

Biological perspective

A

Focuses on the genes, brain, nervous system, and endocrine system.
Behavior explained in terms of underlying physical structures and biochemical processes; includes behavioral neuroscience and cognitive neuroscience.

101
Q

Sociocultural perspective

A

Humans are social animals and are influenced by the presence and absence of other people; examines how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.
Solomon Asch and Gordon Allport studied conformity, prejudice, racism, stereotyping, etc.

102
Q

Cultural psychology

A

An approach that examines how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members; includes absolutism and relativism

103
Q

Absolutism

A

The idea that culture makes little difference for most psychological phenomena

104
Q

Relativism

A

The idea that psychological phenomena are likely to vary considerably across cultures

105
Q

Cross-cultural psychology

A

An approach that attempts to answer whether psychological theories hold true for all people regardless of various cultural differences

106
Q

Illusory correlation

A

When things seem to go together or be causally related, but aren’t

107
Q

Confirmation bias

A

Seeking out evidence that confirms out hypotheses instead of disconfirmation; we look for what we want and ignore what we don’t

108
Q

Availability bias

A

Judgement based on available memory; for example, major life events and catastrophes are seen as more common than they are

109
Q

Belief perseverance

A

We cling to beliefs in spite of evidence to the contrary

110
Q

Rule of Parsimony

A

The simplest theory that explains all of the evidence is the best one

111
Q

Descriptive design

A

Reports demographic or other descriptive data without making any inferences

112
Q

Correlational design

A

Suggests that variables may be related or causally linked, but does not allow for causal inferences

113
Q

Experimental design

A

Controls and tests the relevant variables; allows for causal inferences

114
Q

Descriptive methods

A

Surveys, laboratory observation, archival data, case studies, naturalistic observation

115
Q

Experimental group

A

Subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable

116
Q

Control group

A

Subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment; this controls for confounding variables

117
Q

Confounding variable

A

A third variable other than what the experimenter purposely introduced that affects a participant’s behavior

118
Q

Sampling error

A

When the subjects of a study don’t adequately represent the population

119
Q

Generalizability

A

The extent to which results or findings obtained from a sample are applicable to a broader population

120
Q

Placebo Effect

A

The phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior

121
Q

How can the Placebo Effect be avoided?

A

A single-blind study

122
Q

Single-blind study

A

Subjects do not know whether they are in the experimental or the control group; this reduces the placebo effect

123
Q

Experimenter effect

A

The tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study

124
Q

Inferential statistics

A

Used to decide whether differences actually exist between different sets of numbers; significant statistical difference exists if p < 0.05

125
Q

Neurons

A

Cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information processing tasks

126
Q

Golgi’s Method

A

A silver staining technique used to visualize neurons under a microscope; developed in 1873 and helped to find that the dendrites and axons of separate neurons don’t touch

127
Q

Sensory neurons

A

Receive information from the external world; convey to the brain

128
Q

Motor neurons

A

Carry signals from spinal cord to muscles to produce movement

129
Q

Interneurons

A

Connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, and other interneurons

130
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron’s dendrites

131
Q

What are the three ways in which neurotransmitter actions can be controlled?

A

Reuptake, enzyme deactivation, autoreception

132
Q

Reuptake

A

The neurotransmitter returns to the presynaptic terminal button

133
Q

Enzyme deactivation

A

The neurotransmitter deactivates neurochemicals

134
Q

Autoreception

A

The neurotransmitter signals the axon to stop releasing more neurotransmitters

135
Q

Agonists

A

Drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter

136
Q

Antagonists

A

Drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter

137
Q

What are the two branches of the nervous system?

A

Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

138
Q

What are the components of the central nervous system?

A

The brain and spinal cord

139
Q

What are the two branches of the peripheral nervous system?

A

Autonomic nervous system and somatic nervous system

140
Q

What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Parasympathetic division and sympathetic division

141
Q

What are the two branches of the somatic nervous system?

A

Sensory (afferent) system and motor (efferent) system

142
Q

Hindbrain function

A

Coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord; controls basic functions of life

143
Q

Midbrain function

A

Important for orientation and movement

144
Q

Forebrain function

A

Highest level of brain; critical for complex cognitive, emotional, sensory, and motor functions

145
Q

Hindbrain components

A

Pons, medulla, cerebellum, reticular formation

146
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum?

A

Controls fine motor skills, posture, and balance

147
Q

Midbrain components

A

Tegmentum, tectum

148
Q

Forebrain components

A

Cerebral cortex, corpus callosum, basal ganglia, thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, pituitary gland

149
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

Highest level of complexity in the brain; divided into four lobes in each hemisphere; organized across and within hemispheres and within specific lobes

150
Q

Hippocampus

A

Critical for creating and integrating new memories and learning

151
Q

Amygdala

A

Plays a role in emotional processing

152
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Regulates body temperate, hunger, thirst, sexual behavior

153
Q

Thalamus

A

Receives and transmits information from senses to cerebral cortex

154
Q

Basal ganglia

A

Set of structures that direct intentional movements

155
Q

Pituitary gland

A

The “master gland” of the body’s hormone-producing system; it releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body

156
Q

Endocrine System

A

The network of glands that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream; influence several basic functions such as metabolism, growth, and sexual maturation

157
Q

Mirror neurons

A

Found in frontal and parietal lobes; have been identified in other species; are activated when an organism engages in a behavior or observes another engage in that behavior

158
Q

Brain plasticity

A

The idea that functions that were “assigned” to certain areas of the brain may be capable of being reassigned to other areas of the brain to accommodate changing input from the environment

159
Q

What has studying the damaged brain revealed?

A
  1. Emotional functions of the frontal lobe: Wernicke’s area, Broca’s area, Phineas Gage
  2. The roles of the left and right hemispheres: left hemisphere is more verbal, right hemisphere is more spacial, these functions can be examined using split-brain studies
160
Q

Invertebrates

A

No spinal column

161
Q

Vertebrates

A

Spinal column

162
Q

Sociobiology

A

The study of behavior and social systems of humans and other species from a social context; provides evolutionary explanations for social behavior and systems

163
Q

Gene

A

Unit of hereditary transmission; sections on strands of DNA organized into chromosomes

164
Q

Chromosome

A

Made up of protein and DNA

165
Q

Heredity

A

Biological transmission of traits from parents to offspring

166
Q

Genetics

A

Study of the inheritance of physical and psychological traits

167
Q

Allele

A

One of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome

168
Q

Genome

A

The genetic information for an organism, stored in the DNA of its chromosomes

169
Q

Adoption studies

A

The relative similarities of children to their birth families (genetics) and their adoptive families (environment) are examined

170
Q

Twin studies

A

Researchers examine the similarity of monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins

171
Q

Heritability

A

Measure of the variability of behavioral traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors

172
Q

Epigenetics

A

The study of environmental influences that determine whether or not genes are expressed; emphasizes that genes are not destiny and that nature and nurture interact

PSYC 100 (6 decks)

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