Exam 1: Chapters 1-3 Flashcards
From textbook: "Chapter 1: The Evolution of Psychological Science" "Chapter 2: Methods in Psychology" "Chapter 3: Neuroscience and Behavior" Class slides: Day 02 - Theories and Perspectives Day 03 - Research Methods Day 05 - Brain and Nervous System
Psychology
The scientific study of the mind and behavior
Mind
The set of private events that happen inside a person; their thoughts and feelings
Behavior
The set of public events we say and do; they can be observed
Dualism
The view that the mind and body are fundamentally different things: the body is made of material substance while the mind is immaterial. We are “containers” for the mind; developed by Descartes
Materialism
The view that all mental phenomena are reducible to physical phenomena: the mind is what the brain does, or the brain is a physical object whose activity is known as “the mind.” This view is favored by modern psychology.
Developed by Hobbes and Ryle
Realism
The view that perceptions of the physical world are produced entirely by information from sensory organs: your brain uses only sensory information to create its perceptions, therefore all perceptions are accurate
Idealism
The view that perceptions of the physical world are the brain’s interpretation of information from sensory organs: the brain uses sensory information in addition to everything it already knows in order to perceive and interpret. This view is favored by modern psychology
Empiricism
The view that all accurate knowledge is acquired through experience and observation; developed by Aristotle.
Contrasts with dogmatism.
The concept of tabula rasa, developed by Locke
Nativism
The view that some knowledge is innate rather than acquired: concepts such as space, time, causality, numbers, etc. are innate; developed by Plato
Structuralism
An approach to psychology that attempted to isolate and analyze the mind’s basic elements, similarly to how the physical world can be broken into basic elements such as molecules, atoms, etc.
Introspection
A technique of structuralism characterized by the analysis of subjective experience; used by Wundt and Titchener in experiments in which participants were asked to explain the events of their mind when presented with various stimuli; helped to identify the basic elements of the mind’s subjective experiences
Why didn’t structuralism and introspection last in the field?
Each person’s inner experiences are private and subjective and unable to be accurately known or described
Functionalism
An approach to psychology that emphasized the adaptive significance of mental processes; tied to the emerging concept of natural selection
Natural selection
The process by which the specific attributes that promote an organism’s survival and reproduction become more prevalent in the population over time. Applied to the mind’s features, this reasoning developed functionalism
Hysteria
A loss of function that has no obvious physical origin
Unconscious (noun)
The part of the mind that contains information of which people are not aware; “discovered” and studied by Freud
Psychoanalytical theory
A general theory that emphasizes the influence of the unconscious on feelings, thoughts, and behaviors; developed by Freud.
States that the mind is a set of largely hidden processes where conscious thoughts and feelings are only on the surface and are influenced by all that we can’t see underneath (anxieties, impulses, desires, etc.)
Psychoanalysis
A therapy that aims to give people insight into their unconscious minds.
This practice did not impact experimental psychology, but its other impacts were widespread and great
Behaviorism
An approach to psychology that restricts scientific inquiry to observable behavior only; scientists such as Watson saw thoughts and feelings as to subjective to constitute real research; experiments were based entirely on stimulus and response (Pavlov’s dog)
Principle of Reinforcement
The idea that any behavior that is rewarded will be repeated and any behavior that isn’t won’t; discovered by Skinner and contributed to behaviorism.
Became an extremely popular, yet controversial, idea as Skinner claimed that free will is an illusion and all human behavior is a product of its consequences
Kurt Lewin
Studied leadership, communication, attitude, change, and racial prejudice; argued that behavior is a function of the person’s subjective construal of the environment and stimuli
Social Psychology
The study of the causes and consequences of sociality
Solomon Asch
Argued that the mind creates theories and then warps facts and observations in order to support them
Max Wertheimer
Argued that the mind already has theories about how the world works and that physical stimuli are only part of the equation; studied illusion, perception, and memory; his theories are rooted in idealism
Gestalt Psychology
An approach to psychology that emphasized the way in which the mind creates perceptual experiences, and how the mind imposes organization
Frederic Bartlett
Argued that memory uses our mind’s theories about how the world works to fill in gaps, often incorrectly; the mind recalls what is expects to recall
Jean Piaget
Studied child development and concluded that young children haven’t yet developed their theories about how the world works; sparked an interest in developmental psychology
Developmental Psychology
The study of the ways in which psychological phenomena change over the life span
The overthrow of behaviorism
In 1959, Noam Chomsky published a scathing critique on Skinner’s newest book and effectively argued why behaviorism is not a valid approach to psychology
Cognitive Psychology
The study of human information processing; the creation of the computer helped psychologists compare the mind to software in order to understand its processes; system I and II thinking
Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the ways in which the human mind has been shaped by natural selection; contrasts behaviorism by stating that certain associations are easier to learn based on evolutionary experience.
Human minds are not blank slated and are designed by evolution to solve certain problems; this shapes social behavior.
Influenced by Darwin.
How did the entrance of neuroscience impact the field?
Allowed psychologists to tie behavior to the physical brain and vice versa; technology such as the fMRI made it possible to study undamaged and living brains (which was previously never done) by showing the different amounts of blood flow in different parts of the brain at certain moments
Cognitive Neuroscience
The study of the relationship between the brain and the mind in humans
Behavioral Neuroscience
The study of the relationship between the brain and behavior, primarily in non-human animals
Cultural Psychology
The study of how culture influences mental life: the values, traditions, and beliefs that we share are important to understanding how we think, feel, and behave. Along with anthropology, is used to explain the psychological differences between people of different cultures
Antropology
The study of human societies and cultures; along with cultural psychology, is used to explain the psychological differences between people of different cultures
Dogmatism
The practice of developing theories about the body and relying on those beliefs rather than observations
The Scientific Method
A procedure for using empirical evidence to establish facts; theories must be analyzed by observation to be confirmed
Theories
Hypothetical explanations of natural phenomena; explains how something in the natural world works and why it works that way
Hypothesis
A falsifiable (must be able to be proven wrong) prediction made by a theory; if the theory is correct then the hypothesis should be observed
How is the Scientific Method used?
A theory is developed -> a falsifiable hypothesis is derived -> the hypothesis is tested through observation
Empirical Method
A set of rules and techniques for observation (since human eyes are inaccurate) that uses measurement and description
Why is the Empirical Method different in psychology versus other sciences?
Humans are complex, variable, and reactive, which makes their behavior difficult to observe objectively and accurately
How is measurement used in observation?
- The property being measured must be given an operational definition.
- The measurement of the property must be able to be detected with an applicable device, instrument, or test.
Operational definition
A description of a property in measurable terms; subject to construct validity (ex: happiness may be measured in smiles per day)
Construct validity
The extent to which the thing being measured adequately characterizes the property (ex: the extent to which smiles per day characterizes happiness)
What makes a good measurement detector?
Power and reliability
Power
A detector’s ability to detect the presence of differences or changes in the magnitude of a property
Reliability
A detector’s ability to detect the absence of difference or changes in the magnitude of a property
Demand characteristics
Those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects, which makes the accurate observation of human behavior extremely difficult
How can demand characteristics be avoided?
- Naturalistic observation,
or if not possible: - Make sure the subjects do not know the purpose of the observation
Naturalistic observation
A technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments (unfortunately, this often isn’t a practical method)
Observer bias
The tendency for observers’ expectations to influence both what they believe they observed and what they actually observed
How can observer bias and the experimenter effect be avoided?
A double-blind study
Double-blind study
A study in which neither the researcher nor the participants know how the participants are expected to behave, therefore their respective expectations cannot influence the participant’s behavior or the researcher’s observations
Frequency distribution
A graphic representation showing the number of times in which the measurement of a property takes place on each of it possible values
Normal distribution
A mathematically defined distribution in which the frequency of measurements is highest in the middle and decreases symmetrically in both directions
Descriptive statistics
Brief summary statements that capture the essential information from a frequency distribution; should include central tendency and variability
Central tendency
Statements about the value of the measurements that tend to lie near the center or midpoint of the frequency distribution; described by the mode, mean, and median
Mode
The value of the most frequently observed measurement
Mean
The average value of all the measurements
Median
The value that is in the middle of the distribution
Variability
Statements about the extent to which the measurements in a frequency distribution differ from each other; should include range and standard deviation
Range
The value of the largest measurement in a frequency distribution minus the value of the smallest measurements
Standard deviation
A normalized way to describe how each of the measurements in a frequency distribution differs from the mean
Correlation
When variations in the value of one variable are synchronized with variations in the value of the other; the presence of this pattern can help to make predictions; pattern has direction and strength
Correlation direction
- Positive means more of one is more of the other
- Negative means more of one is less of the other
Correlation strength
Accuracy (strong, moderately strong, moderately weak, weak)
Correlation coefficient
A mathematical measure of both the direction and strength of a correlation; represented by the letter r with a limited range of -1 < r < 1
Normal correlation
The correlations we observe in the world around us; can have three types of relationships:
1. X causes Y
2. Y causes X
3. Z causes X Y
Third-variable problem
The natural correlation between two variables cannot be taken as evidence of a causal relationship between them because a third variable may be causing them both
Experimentation
A technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables; if there are three possible causes of any correlation, then experimentation can eliminate two of them
What techniques are used in experimentation?
Manipulation and random assignment
Manipulation
A technique for determining the causal power of a variable by actively changing its value and observing whether the value of the other variable changes as well
Random assignment
A procedure that assigns participants to a condition by chance; a solution to self-selection
Self-selection
A problem that occurs when anything about a participant determines the participant’s condition; solved by random assignment
Conditions
Experimental and control groups that vary in only one way
Internal validity
An attribute of an experiment that allows it to establish causal relationships; basically everything in the experiment is working correctly
External validity
An attribute of an experiment in which variables have been operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way
Case method
A procedure for gathering scientific information by studying a single individual
Random sampling
A technique for selecting participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
Replication
An experiment that uses the same procedures as a previous experiment but with a new sample from the same population
Type I error
When researchers conclude that there is a causal relationship between two variables when in fact there is not; also known as a false positive or a “fluke”
Type II error
When researchers conclude that there is not a causal relationship between two variables when in fact there is; also known as a false negative or a “flunk”
Replication rate
The percentage of experiment replications that come out with the same results as the first experiment
What is the relationship between replication rate, type I errors, and type II errors?
When an experiment is designed to try to avoid one type of error, the chances of committing the other type of error increase.
If type I errors are avoided, there would be no false positives and replication rates would be high. However, many type II errors would happen and real causal relationships would be missed.
Why do humans find it difficult to think critically?
- We see what we want and expect to see
- We accept info we already agree with and look for alternatives to info we don’t already agree with
- We tend to ignore what we can’t see; we don’t notice absences
The Belmont Report
A document regarding the three basic ethical rules of psychological research
The APA Ethical Code
A modernized document regarding several detailed ethical standards for psychological research
Phrenology
Developed by Gall; the now-defunct theory that specific mental abilities are localized in specific brain regions and that the size of these regions varies based on the person’s level of ability
Paul Broca
Studied brain-damaged patients to link localization to ability, noticed that damage to a part of the brain impairs specific mental functions
Physiology in early psychology
Helmholtz: applied stimulus to different parts of the body to measure their reaction times in order to estimate how fast nerve impulses travel.
Wundt: scientific psychology should analyze the subjective experiences of the mind
System I thinking
Fast, unconscious, instinctual thought
System II thinking
Slow, deliberate, critical thought
Psychodynamic perspective
Freud studied how the mind is influenced by unconscious drives and how behavior results from instinct and conflict; studies the id, ego, and superego
Id
According to Freud, the instinctual and primitive part of the mind that functions on sexual and aggressive drives and hidden thoughts and desires
Ego
According to Freud, the realistic part of the mind that mediates between the id and the superego
Superego
According to Freud, the part of the brain that deals with a higher moral conscience
Humanistic perspective
An approach to psychology that emphasizes a positive view of human nature, an individual capacity for making rational choices, and unconditional positive regard.
Includes Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to achieve full potential and self-actualization.
Carl Rogers developed client-centered therapy that gives no advice and simply allows the expression of feeling
Biological perspective
Focuses on the genes, brain, nervous system, and endocrine system.
Behavior explained in terms of underlying physical structures and biochemical processes; includes behavioral neuroscience and cognitive neuroscience.
Sociocultural perspective
Humans are social animals and are influenced by the presence and absence of other people; examines how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.
Solomon Asch and Gordon Allport studied conformity, prejudice, racism, stereotyping, etc.
Cultural psychology
An approach that examines how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members; includes absolutism and relativism
Absolutism
The idea that culture makes little difference for most psychological phenomena
Relativism
The idea that psychological phenomena are likely to vary considerably across cultures
Cross-cultural psychology
An approach that attempts to answer whether psychological theories hold true for all people regardless of various cultural differences
Illusory correlation
When things seem to go together or be causally related, but aren’t
Confirmation bias
Seeking out evidence that confirms out hypotheses instead of disconfirmation; we look for what we want and ignore what we don’t
Availability bias
Judgement based on available memory; for example, major life events and catastrophes are seen as more common than they are
Belief perseverance
We cling to beliefs in spite of evidence to the contrary
Rule of Parsimony
The simplest theory that explains all of the evidence is the best one
Descriptive design
Reports demographic or other descriptive data without making any inferences
Correlational design
Suggests that variables may be related or causally linked, but does not allow for causal inferences
Experimental design
Controls and tests the relevant variables; allows for causal inferences
Descriptive methods
Surveys, laboratory observation, archival data, case studies, naturalistic observation
Experimental group
Subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable
Control group
Subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment; this controls for confounding variables
Confounding variable
A third variable other than what the experimenter purposely introduced that affects a participant’s behavior
Sampling error
When the subjects of a study don’t adequately represent the population
Generalizability
The extent to which results or findings obtained from a sample are applicable to a broader population
Placebo Effect
The phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior
How can the Placebo Effect be avoided?
A single-blind study
Single-blind study
Subjects do not know whether they are in the experimental or the control group; this reduces the placebo effect
Experimenter effect
The tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study
Inferential statistics
Used to decide whether differences actually exist between different sets of numbers; significant statistical difference exists if p < 0.05
Neurons
Cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information processing tasks
Golgi’s Method
A silver staining technique used to visualize neurons under a microscope; developed in 1873 and helped to find that the dendrites and axons of separate neurons don’t touch
Sensory neurons
Receive information from the external world; convey to the brain
Motor neurons
Carry signals from spinal cord to muscles to produce movement
Interneurons
Connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, and other interneurons
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron’s dendrites
What are the three ways in which neurotransmitter actions can be controlled?
Reuptake, enzyme deactivation, autoreception
Reuptake
The neurotransmitter returns to the presynaptic terminal button
Enzyme deactivation
The neurotransmitter deactivates neurochemicals
Autoreception
The neurotransmitter signals the axon to stop releasing more neurotransmitters
Agonists
Drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter
Antagonists
Drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter
What are the two branches of the nervous system?
Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
What are the components of the central nervous system?
The brain and spinal cord
What are the two branches of the peripheral nervous system?
Autonomic nervous system and somatic nervous system
What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?
Parasympathetic division and sympathetic division
What are the two branches of the somatic nervous system?
Sensory (afferent) system and motor (efferent) system
Hindbrain function
Coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord; controls basic functions of life
Midbrain function
Important for orientation and movement
Forebrain function
Highest level of brain; critical for complex cognitive, emotional, sensory, and motor functions
Hindbrain components
Pons, medulla, cerebellum, reticular formation
What is the function of the cerebellum?
Controls fine motor skills, posture, and balance
Midbrain components
Tegmentum, tectum
Forebrain components
Cerebral cortex, corpus callosum, basal ganglia, thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, pituitary gland
Cerebral cortex
Highest level of complexity in the brain; divided into four lobes in each hemisphere; organized across and within hemispheres and within specific lobes
Hippocampus
Critical for creating and integrating new memories and learning
Amygdala
Plays a role in emotional processing
Hypothalamus
Regulates body temperate, hunger, thirst, sexual behavior
Thalamus
Receives and transmits information from senses to cerebral cortex
Basal ganglia
Set of structures that direct intentional movements
Pituitary gland
The “master gland” of the body’s hormone-producing system; it releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body
Endocrine System
The network of glands that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream; influence several basic functions such as metabolism, growth, and sexual maturation
Mirror neurons
Found in frontal and parietal lobes; have been identified in other species; are activated when an organism engages in a behavior or observes another engage in that behavior
Brain plasticity
The idea that functions that were “assigned” to certain areas of the brain may be capable of being reassigned to other areas of the brain to accommodate changing input from the environment
What has studying the damaged brain revealed?
- Emotional functions of the frontal lobe: Wernicke’s area, Broca’s area, Phineas Gage
- The roles of the left and right hemispheres: left hemisphere is more verbal, right hemisphere is more spacial, these functions can be examined using split-brain studies
Invertebrates
No spinal column
Vertebrates
Spinal column
Sociobiology
The study of behavior and social systems of humans and other species from a social context; provides evolutionary explanations for social behavior and systems
Gene
Unit of hereditary transmission; sections on strands of DNA organized into chromosomes
Chromosome
Made up of protein and DNA
Heredity
Biological transmission of traits from parents to offspring
Genetics
Study of the inheritance of physical and psychological traits
Allele
One of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome
Genome
The genetic information for an organism, stored in the DNA of its chromosomes
Adoption studies
The relative similarities of children to their birth families (genetics) and their adoptive families (environment) are examined
Twin studies
Researchers examine the similarity of monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins
Heritability
Measure of the variability of behavioral traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors
Epigenetics
The study of environmental influences that determine whether or not genes are expressed; emphasizes that genes are not destiny and that nature and nurture interact
