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PSYC 100 > Exam 3: Chapters 8-11 > Flashcards

Exam 3: Chapters 8-11 Flashcards

1
Q

Emotion

A

A temporary state that includes unique subjective experiences and physiological activity, and that prepares people for action
- mental features: what a person thinks, feels, is prepared to do
- physical features: activity of the body and brain

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2
Q

Multidimensional scaling

A

A scale that estimates the similarity of emotional experience by describing the “distance” between them:
- arousal: how energetic a feeling is; measured from low to high
- valence: how positive a feeling is; measured from negative to positive

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3
Q

Appraisal

A

Conscious or unconscious evaluations and interpretations of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus or event which ultimately influence the emotions we experience. We evaluate:
- self-relevance
- importance
- ability to cope
- ability to control
- etc.

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4
Q

Action tendencies

A

A readiness to engage in a specific set of emotion-relevant behaviors; borne from evolutionary purposes, indicating emotion as a survival tactic
- for example: emotion of “fear” associated with action tendency “freezing”

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5
Q

James-Lange Theory

A

Feelings are simply the perception of ones own physiological responses to a stimulus rather than physical responses that occur due to an emotion; essentially physical response happens first and we perceive that as an emotion
(this is not true)

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6
Q

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion (aka Schacter-Singer Theory)

A

Revision of James-Lange Theory; every stimuli trigger the same general state of physiological arousal, which is then interpreted as a specific emotion based on context (cognitive appraisal)

Again, not true, but it is true that we can interpret the same physiological response in different emotional ways

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7
Q

Fear pathways

A

Happen simultaneously, therefore indicating that you can feel fear before you conscious process what you’re afraid of
- slow pathway
- fast pathway

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8
Q

Slow fear pathway

A

Stimulus processed in thalamus, then cortex (processing), then amygdala (emotion)

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9
Q

Fast fear pathway

A

Stimulus processed in thalamus then amygdala (emotion), not allowing for processing of the stimulus before emotion is produced

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10
Q

Emotional expression

A

An observable sign of an emotional state (i.e. facial expressions)

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11
Q

Basic facial expressions

A
  • anger
  • fear
  • disgust
  • happiness
  • sadness
  • surprise
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12
Q

Universality hypothesis

A

Darwin argued that all emotional expressions mean the same thing to all people in all places at all times; not true, but the New Guinea study showed significant cross-cultural similarities

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13
Q

Facial feedback hypothesis

A

Imitating emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they typically signify

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14
Q

Display rule

A

A norm for the appropriate expression of emotion, moderated by techniques such as:
- intensification: exaggerating expression of emotion
- deintensification: muting expression of emotion
- masking: expressing one emotion while feeling another
- neutralizing: showing no expression of emotion

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15
Q

Four features that reveal deceptive expression

A
  • morphology (reliable muscles)
  • symmetry
  • duration
  • temporal patterning
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16
Q

How do certain emotions facilitate social behaviors and relationships?

A
  • guilt helps prevent harmful behavior and demonstrates caring, but can be manipulated to control others
  • jealousy signals emotional commitment and protects genetic interests, but is a common cause of partner abuse
  • embarrassment represents submission to social group and recognition of social error
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17
Q

Mood disorders

A

Excessively strong emotions

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18
Q

Alexithymia

A

Difficulty identifying and expressing emotions; trait of autism

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19
Q

Emotion regulation

A

Use of cognitive and behavioral strategies to influence one’s emotional experience
- cognitive load
- ego depletion

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20
Q

Reappraisal

A

Changing one’s emotional experience by changing the meaning of the emotion-eliciting stimulus

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21
Q

Compare the four main theories of emotion

A

Common sense view:
situation -> emotion -> bodily response

James-Lange Theory:
situation -> bodily response -> emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory:
situation -> subcortical brain activity -> simultaneous bodily response and emotion

Schacter-Singer Theory (two-factor):
situation -> simultaneous cognitive appraisal and bodily response -> emotion

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22
Q

Kluver-Bucy Syndrome

A

Caused by removal of amygdala; characterized by:
- hypersexuality
- fearlessness
- deficits in response to social cues
- fear is harder to condition

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23
Q

Amygdala

A
  • part of the limbic system
  • activates emotional facial expressions
  • sensitive to fear expression

damage causes difficulty in interpreting expressions and making judgments

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24
Q

The Limbic System

A

Important for assessing and responding to emotionally relevant stimuli; amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex

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25
Q

Orbitofrontal Cortex

A

Processes potential reward value and emotional/social cues

Damage causes:
- inappropriate social behavior
- insensitivity to emotions of others
- excessive aggression

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26
Q

Motivation

A

The internal psychological causes of purposeful behavior. Emotions motivate us by:
- providing us with information
- being the objectives toward which we strive

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27
Q

Drive

A

Internal state generated by departure from physiological optimality

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28
Q

Instinct

A

The natural tendency to seek a particular goal

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29
Q

What is the relationship between drive and instinct?

A

Instinct provides us with certain desires, and our drives attempt to fulfill them

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30
Q

Homeostasis

A

The tendency for a system to take action to keep itself in equilibrium; this is a drive

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31
Q

Drive-reduction theory

A

Developed by Clark Hull; the primary motivation of all organisms is to reduce their drives

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32
Q

Hedonic principle

A

Developed by Aristotle; people are primarily motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain

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33
Q

Capgras Syndrome

A

Damage to the connection between the temporal lobe and the limbic system causes the belief that loved ones are imposters due to lack of emotional connection

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34
Q

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A

physiological - safety - love and belonging - esteem - self actualization

When basic needs are met, autonomy and satisfaction with life increase. When basic needs are not met, autonomy makes little difference to quality of life

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35
Q

Orexigenic signals

A

Turn on when body has insufficient energy; lateral hypothalamus signals hormone ghrelin to release in stomach, switches on hunger

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36
Q

Anorixigenic signals

A

Ventromedial hypothalamus signals leptin to be released in fat cells, which makes food less rewarding; switched off hunger

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37
Q

Causes of eating disorders

A
  • genetic
  • experimental
  • psychological
  • cultural
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38
Q

Binge-eating disorder (BED)

A

Recurrent and uncontrolled episodes of eating a large number of calories in a short time

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39
Q

Bulimia nervosa

A

Binge eating followed by purging

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40
Q

Anorexia nervosa

A

Intense fear of being fat, resulting in severe restriction of food intake

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41
Q

Obesity

A

Defined by a BMI over 30
- causes biochemical abnormalities, eating without hunger, nature designing to overeat
- body resists weight loss
- dieting decreases metabolism

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42
Q

Evolutionary mismatch

A

Traits that were adaptive in an ancestral environment, but now may be maladaptive in a modern environment

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43
Q

How is the human body resistant to weight loss?

A

Weight gain causes an increase in size and number of fat cells in the body, whereas weight loss only decreases the size of the fat cells but not the total number of fat cells in the body

Dieting causes a decrease in metabolism, which makes the body even better at converting food to fat

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44
Q

DHEA (dihydroepiandosterone)

A

Hormone responsible for onset of sexual desire

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45
Q

Testosterone

A

Hormone more responsible for sexual desire in men, but also responsible in women

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46
Q

Estrogen

A

Hormone more responsible for sexual desire in women

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47
Q

Sexual response cycle

A

The stages of physiological arousal during sexual activity:
excitement -> plateau -> orgasm -> resolution -> refractory period

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48
Q

Intrinsic motivation

A

A motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding (i.e. eating ice cream)

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49
Q

Extrinsic motivation

A

A motivation to take actions that lead to reward (i.e. brushing teeth)

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50
Q

Conscious motivation

A

Motivations of which people are aware

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51
Q

Unconscious motivation

A

Motivations of which people are not aware

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52
Q

Need for achievement

A

The motivation to solve worthwhile problems; an unconscious motivation

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53
Q

Approach motivation

A

The motivation to experience positive outcomes; promotion

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54
Q

Avoidance motivation

A

The motivation to avoid experiencing negative outcomes; prevention
- more powerful that approach motivation
- we take more risks to avoid loss than to add gain

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55
Q

Loss aversion

A

The tendency to care more about avoiding losses than achieving equal-size gains

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56
Q

Terror management theory

A

A theory about how people respond to knowledge of their own mortality
- developing a cultural worldview
- mortality-salience hypothesis

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57
Q

Mortality-salience hypothesis

A

The prediction that people who are reminded of their own mortality will work to reinforce their cultural worldviews

We are motivated to avoid death-related anxiety by working to achieve meaningful immortality through our legacies

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58
Q

Language

A

A system for communicating with other using signals that are combined according to rules of grammar and that convey meaning

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59
Q

Grammar

A

A set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages

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60
Q

How is human language difference from the signaling of other species?

A
  • complex structure allows for a wide range of ideas and concepts with an infinite number of distinct sentences
  • we describe intangible things
  • we use language in thought to name, categorize, and describe things to ourselves
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61
Q

Phonemes

A

The smallest units of sound that are recognizable as speech rather than random noises

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62
Q

Phonological rules

A

Rules that indicate how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds

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63
Q

Morphemes

A

The smallest meaningful units of language; produced by combining phonemes
- content morphemes: things and events (cat, dog, take)
- function morphemes: grammatical functions and time indicators (and, or, but, when)

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64
Q

Morphological rules

A

Rules that indicate how morphemes can be combined to form words

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65
Q

Syntactic rules

A

Rules that indicate how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences

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66
Q

Fast mapping

A

The process whereby children map a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure

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67
Q

Telegraphic speech

A

Aka two-word speech/child speech; develops around 2 years old, is devoid of function morphemes and consists mostly of content words

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68
Q

Behaviorist theory of language learning

A

We learn language the same way we develop every skill; through reinforcement, shaping, extinction, and operant conditioning

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69
Q

Nativist theory of language learning

A

Language development is an innate, biological capacity aided by Chomsky’s universal grammar

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70
Q

Universal grammar

A

Developed by Noam Chomsky; a collection of processes that facilitate language learning and argue that children are born with mental structures that facilitate comprehension and production of language regardless of the ungrammatical structure of regular conversation

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71
Q

Interactionist theory of language learning

A

Infants are born with an innate ability to acquire language, but social interactions also play a crucial role

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72
Q

Genetic dysaphasia

A

Inability to learn the grammatical structure of language despite having otherwise normal intelligence

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73
Q

Aphasia

A

Difficulty in producing or comprehending language caused by and depending on damage to either Broca’s area (production) or Wernicke’s area (comprehension)

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74
Q

Six main characteristics of language development

A
  • children learn language very quickly
  • children make few speaking errors apart from overregularizing
  • passive mastery develops faster than active mastery
  • infants can distinguish between all human phonemes
  • comprehension before production
  • babbling adapts to native language
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75
Q

Effects of bilingualism

A
  • no significant difference in language development
  • increases gray matter
  • some cognitive and executive functioning benefits
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76
Q

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

A

Language shapes the nature of thought

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77
Q

Concept

A

A mental representation that groups of categorizes shared features of related objects, events, or other stimuli

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78
Q

Necessary condition

A

Something that must be true of the object in order for it to belong to the category
- for example, an object must be a mammal in order for it potentially belong to the category “dog”

79
Q

Sufficient condition

A

Something that, if it’s true of the object, proves that it belongs to the category
- for example, if an object is a German shepherd, it is definitely a dog

80
Q

Prototype theory

A

The “best” or “most typical” member of a category is defining
- for example, if a pigeon is your idea of a bird, then a robin is more of a bird than an emu is

81
Q

Exemplar theory

A

We make category judgments by comparing a new instance with stored memories of other instances of the category

82
Q

Category-specific deficit

A

Inability to recognize objects that belong to a specific category, although the inability to recognize objects outside the category is undisturbed; the category affected depends on the location of the brain trauma

83
Q

Rational choice theory

A

We make rational decisions by determining how likely something is to happen, judging the value of that outcome, and multiplying the two

84
Q

Heuristics

A

Cognitive shortcuts; fast and efficient strategies that may help facilitate decision-making, but do not guarantee a valid solution is reached

85
Q

Algorithm

A

Well-defined sequence of procedures or rules that guarantees a solution toa problem

86
Q

Availability bias

A

Items more readily available in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently

87
Q

Conjunction fallacy

A

When people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event

88
Q

Representativeness heuristics

A

Making a probability judgment by comparing an object or event with a prototype of the object or event

89
Q

Framing effects

A

When people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phased/framed

90
Q

Sunk-cost fallacy

A

When people make decisions about a current situation on the basis of what they have previously invested in the situation
For example, you paid $100 for an amusement park ticket, but it happens to be raining. You go anyway as to not “waste” the money and are miserable all day rather than having stayed home - but the money is gone either way

91
Q

Optimism bias

A

People believe that, compared with other individuals, they are more likely to experience positive events and less likely to experience negative events in the future.
For example, smokers think they are at a lower risk for lung cancer than other smokers

92
Q

Prospect theory

A

People choose to take on risks when evaluating potential losses and to avoid risks when evaluating potential gains because:
1. we simplify available information
2. we choose the prospect that we believe offers the best value

93
Q

Expected utility

A

People should make decisions that maximize value/expected utility of a situation

94
Q

What assumptions does the prospect theory make?

A
  • certainty effect: when making decisions, people give greater weight to outcomes that are a sure thing
  • people compare their choices with a reference point to make a decision
  • people are more willing to take risks to avoid losses than to achieve gains
95
Q

Ill-defined problems

A

No clear goals or well-defined solutions

96
Q

Well-defined problems

A

Clearly specified goals and defined solution paths

97
Q

Means-end analysis

A

The process of searching for the means or steps to reduce the differences between the current situation and the desired goal

98
Q

What are the four steps of the means-end analysis process?

A
  1. analyze the goal state
  2. analyze the current state
  3. list the differences between states
  4. reduce the list of differences by:
    - direct means procedure
    - generating a subgoal
    - finding a similar problem with a known solution
99
Q

Analogical problem solving

A

Solving a problem by finding a similar problem with a known solution and applying it to the current problem

100
Q

Insight

A

All insight it incremental, but some is unconscious is fast while some is slow and deliberate

101
Q

Incremental insight process

A

The “clues” of a problem activate unconscious relevant information known as compound remote associations that spread and continue to recruit more information and associations until there is enough information and we “suddenly” become aware of the solution

102
Q

Functional fixedness

A

The tendency to perceive the functions of objects as unchanging; the string problem, the candle problem, and the nine-dot problem

103
Q

Reasoning

A

A mental activity that consists of using logic to organize information or beliefs into a series of steps in order to reach conclusions

104
Q

Practical reasoning

A

Figuring out what to do; reasoning directed toward action

105
Q

Theoretical reasoning

A

Reasoning directed toward arriving at a belief; also known as discursive reasoning

106
Q

What is the relationship between the truth of a statement and the validity of an argument?

A

When all statements are true and the argument relating those statements is valid, a fair conclusion is reached. However, even if all statements are true, an invalid argument can be made, and therefore no sound conclusion is reached

107
Q

Belief bias

A

People’s judgments about whether to accept conclusions depend more on how believable the conclusions are then on whether the arguments are logically valid

108
Q

Syllogistic reasoning

A

Assesses whether a sound conclusion follows from two statements that are assumed to be true

109
Q

Illusory truth effect

A

When repeated exposure to a statement increases the likelihood that people will judge the statement to be true

110
Q

Illusion of explanatory depth

A

Overestimation of depth of understanding when we attempt to generate detailed explanations even in absence of expert descriptions
- this generally leads to polarized views
- when we realize that we don’t fully understand the depth we thought we did, out views moderate

111
Q

Intelligence

A

The ability to use one’s mind to solve novel problems and learn from experience

112
Q

The Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A

First developed by Binet and Simon to measure aptitude apart from achievement

Developed by Terman and Stern to calculate the ratio of mental age to physical age

113
Q

Ratio IQ

A

Statistic obtained by dividing a person’s mental age by their physical age and then multiplying by 100

114
Q

Deviation IQ

A

Statistic obtained by dividing a person’s test score by the average test score of people in the same group then multiplying by 100

115
Q

Three modern intelligence tests

A
  • Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
  • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
  • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
116
Q

Charles Spearman

A

Argued that correlations among many cognitive tasks implies higher general abilities

117
Q

Confirmatory factor analysis

A

Statistical technique showed that correlations between scores on different tests are best described by a three-level hierarchy; both Spearman and Thurstone contributed to this idea

118
Q

Two-factor theory of intelligence

A

Spearman’s theory suggested that every task requires a combination of a general ability (g) and skills that are specific to the task (s)

119
Q

Three-level hierarchy

A
  1. general intelligence (g)
  2. middle-level abilities (m)
  3. specific skills (s)
120
Q

Louis Thurstone

A

Argued that the clustering of correlations meant that there was no such thing as general ability, just a few primary mental abilities that are stable and independent:
- word fluency
- verbal comprehension
- numerical ability
- spacial visualization
- associative memory
- perceptual ability
- reasoning

121
Q

Middle-level abilities

A

Similar to Thurstone’s idea of primary mental abilities; ability clusters between general and specific abilities

122
Q

Data-based approach

A

Connects intelligence test performance to ability clusters

123
Q

Theory-based approach

A

Broadly surveys human abilities and determines which ones intelligence tests do or don’t measure; allows for the fact that different cultures value different abilities, but doesn’t include emotional intelligence.
Includes:
- analytic intelligence (problem solving)
- creative intelligence (novel solutions)
- practical intelligence (every day)

124
Q

John Carroll

A

Developed the eight middle-level abilities:
- memory and learning
- visual perception
- auditory perception
- retrieval ability
- cognitive speed
- processing speed
- crystallized intelligence
- fluid intelligence

125
Q

Emotional intelligence

A

Ability to reason about emotions and to use emotions to enhance reasoning and to know what kinds of emotions a particular event will trigger.
- accuracy with which a person can read emotional expressions
- ability to predict emotional responses to external events

126
Q

Nature vs. nurture in intelligence

A

Genealogical studies show that people who share all their genes have similar intelligence scores regardless of whether or not they share environments (and a similar pattern for people who share different amounts of genetics/environment)

Genes establish the range in which a person’s intelligence may fall, while environment determines the point in that range where their intelligence actually falls

127
Q

The heritability quotient

A

Statistic that describes the proportion of the difference between IQ scores that can be explained by difference in their genes; is about 50%

128
Q

The Flynn Effect

A

The accidental discovery that the average intelligence test score rises 0.3% every year

129
Q

Average IQ

A

Average IQ is 100
More than 115 is intellectually gifted
Less than 85 is intellectually disabled

130
Q

Differences in IQ between sexes

A

Males and females have same average IQ, but males have a more variable distribution

131
Q

Effects of a very high IQ

A

High-IQ adults are less prone to mental illness (contrary to popular belief)

High-IQ children are just as well adjusted as peers when provided with appropriate educational opportunities

132
Q

Cognitive enhancers

A

Drugs that produce improvements in psychological processes underlying intelligent behaviors; for example, prescription stimulants
- similar neural benefits can be caused by sleep, exercise, nutrition, etc.

133
Q

Entity Theory of Intelligence

A

Intelligence is a fixed, innate human characteristic; aka fixed mindset

Implies that only certain people are smart and you must prove yourself as one of them

Correlated with tests and learned helplessness

134
Q

Incremental Theory of Intelligence

A

Intelligence is malleable and expandable and can be cultivated with hard work; aka growth mindset

Implies that anyone can be “smart” if they work hard and persist

Correlated with strong negotiating skills and a positive and stable self-esteem

135
Q

Crystallized intelligence

A

Ability to apply knowledge that was acquired through experience; impacted by autism and Alzheimer’s

136
Q

Fluid intelligence

A

Ability to solve and reason about novel problems; impacted by damage to prefrontal cortex

137
Q

Zygote

A

Fertilized egg that contains genetic material from egg and sperm

138
Q

Germinal period

A

The first two weeks of pregnancy after conception

139
Q

Embryonic period

A

Week 2 to week 8 of pregnancy; forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and cells in cortex start forming

140
Q

Fetal period

A

Week 9 of pregnancy to birth; myelination begins, and the fetus has a working nervous system by 7 months

141
Q

Hormonal influence in the womb

A
  • anxiety can transfer from mother to fetus
  • hormones may play a role in autism
  • androgens/testosterone may affect sexual orientation
  • levels of testosterone in the womb may affect certain childhood behaviors
142
Q

Teratogens

A

Any substance that passes from mother to fetus and impairs development; these are most harmful during the embryonic stage
- smoking
- alcohol
- thalidomide, etc.

143
Q

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A

Characterized by abnormal physical and facial features, and certain developmental delays and cognitive deficits

144
Q

Infancy

A

State of development that begins and birth and lasts between 18 to 24 months
- muscles and motor development
- brain development
- perceptual development (taste, smell, hunger, hearing, mimicking expressions)

145
Q

Motor development

A

The emergence of the ability to execute physical actions
- reflexes
- cephalocaudal and proximodistal rules

146
Q

Reflexes

A

Motor responses that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation, aid in survival, and may pave the way for more complex learning
- grasping
- startle
- rooting
- stepping
- sucking

147
Q

Cephalocaudal and proximodistal rules

A

Infants learn to control their bodies from head to feet and center to periphery

148
Q

Developmental psychology

A

The study of continuity and change across the life span

149
Q

Brain development

A

Myelination occurs in different regions at different stages:
- hearing and balance myelinated at birth
- areas involved in abstract thinking not fully myelinated until after age 20

Cognitive development and learning

150
Q

Cognitive development

A

The process by which infants and children gain the ability to think, understand, and learn:
1. specific areas must connect synaptically
2. overgeneration of synaptic connections
3. synaptic pruning

Critical period: the developmental stage during which one can acquire specific skills or knowledge

151
Q

Visual perception in infancy

A
  • visual acuity is poor at birth, but reaches an adult level by the end of the first year
  • depth perception and the development of binocular disparity develops between 3 and 6 months (visual cliff experiments)
152
Q

Auditory perception in infancy

A

Newborns can hear and locate source of sounds; hearing approaches full development by 6 months. Infants can remember sound and distinguish between the voices of their mother and a stranger

153
Q

Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development

A

Four stages of development during which we learn:
1. how the physical world works
2. how our own minds work
3. how other people’s minds work,
Involving:
- schemas
- assimilation
- accommodation

154
Q

Schemas, assimilation, and accommodation

A

Schemas: mental patterns or structures that make up theories about how the world works
Assimilation: new experiences are fit into existing schema
Accommodation: schemas are adapted and expanded to handle new experiences

155
Q

Piaget’s four stages

A

Stage 1: sensorimotor stage
Stage 2: preoperational stage
Stage 3: concrete operational
Stage 4: formal operational

156
Q

Sensorimotor stage

A

From birth until 2 years old:
- perceptual and motor skills developed
- internal schema of people and objects
- sucking reflex
- object permanence (preferential looking time)

157
Q

Preoperational stage

A

From 2 to 6 years old:
- develop a preliminary understanding of the physical world
- symbolic thinking
- egocentrism (false-belief task)
- Theory of Mind

158
Q

Theory of Mind

A

The idea that human behavior is guided by mental representation; the ability to explain and predict behavior in terms of other people’s mental states and understand that individuals have different perspectives and knowledge based on individual experience

159
Q

Concrete operational stage

A

From 6 to 11 years old:
- learn how actions and operations can transform the physical world
- develop an understanding of conservation of numbers, volume, mass, etc. (reversibility)

160
Q

Formal operational stage

A

From age 11 onwards; develop abstract reasoning:
- theoretical, hypothetical, counterfactual thinking
- ability to form and test hypotheses
- concepts learned in one context can be applied to another
- strategy and planning

161
Q

Modern perspective on Piaget’s stages

A

These stages are continuous, not distinct; some abilities are acquired earlier than proposed:
- physics understood at 4 months
- math is innate
- object permanence understood at 3 months

162
Q

Lev Vygotsky

A

Emphasized the importance of interacting with members of their culture for children’s development

Zone of proximal development: things children cannot do alone, but can do with help

163
Q

Three fundamental cultural skills that help children learn from others

A

social referencing: “I think what you think” by using other’s reactions as guiding information
imitation: “I do what you do”
joint attention: “I see what you see”

164
Q

Joint attention

A

Allows children to learn from others by focusing on what that person is focusing on; specific to gaze

165
Q

Internal working model

A

Set of beliefs about the way relationships work; developed in infanthood based on attachment style

166
Q

Harry Harlow

A

Conducted attachment experiments with baby rhesus monkeys; found that they prefer comforting attachment over survival-based attachment

167
Q

Attachment

A

Emotional bond that forms between newborns and their primary caregivers
- primary caregiver is determined by who responds when a bid for attention is made

168
Q

Attachment styles

A

Characteristic patterns of reacting to the presence and absence of one’s primary caregiver, correlated and caused by caregiver’s behavior:
- secure
- avoidant
- anxious-ambivalent
- disorganized

169
Q

Strange situation

A

Behavioral test by Mary Ainsworth that is used to determine a child’s attachment style

170
Q

Secure attachment

A

Infant may or may not be distressed when caregiver leaves; acknowledges return positively; indicates confidence that caregiver will respond
- most common

171
Q

Avoidant attachment

A

Infant not distressed when caregiver leaves; does not acknowledge return; indicated confidence that caregiver won’t respond to needs
- about 20%

172
Q

Anxious-ambivalent attachment

A

Infant distressed when caregiver leaves; difficult to calm or responds negatively when returns; indicates uncertainty about whether or not they will respond to needs
- 15%

173
Q

Disorganized attachment

A

No consistent pattern of response; infant is confused about relationship with caregiver; sometimes is an indicator of abuse
- most rare

174
Q

Piaget’s theory of moral development

A

Moral thinking shifts from:
realism to relativism
prescriptions to principles
outcomes to intentions

175
Q

Kohlberg’s theory of three stages of moral development

A

Adapted from Piaget; based on responses to moral dilemmas:
preconventional stage
conventional stage
postconventional stage

176
Q

Preconventional stage

A

During childhood, the morality of an action is determined by its consequences for the person

177
Q

Conventional stage

A

During adolescence, the morality of an action is determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules

178
Q

Postconventional stage

A

During adulthood, the morality of an action is determined by a set of general preinciples that reflect core values

179
Q

Temperament

A

Biologically based pattern of attentional and emotional reactivity; infants are born with it and it remains quite stable over time

180
Q

Moral intuitionist perspective

A

Perceptions of right and wrong are evolutionarily emotional reactions; some say that moral judgments are the consequence rather than the cause of emotional reactions

181
Q

Ethnic identity

A

Psychological association between people and their ethnic or racial group; understandable by age 4

182
Q

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

A

Each stage of life is based on age and has a crisis that must be resolved:
1. birth-18 months: trust vs. mistrust
2. 18 months-3 years: autonomy vs. shame/doubt
3. 3-6 years: initiative vs. guilt
4. 6-12 years: industry vs. inferiority
5. 12-18 years: identity vs. role confusion
6. 19-40 years: intimacy vs. isolation
7. 40-65 years: generativity vs. stagnation
8. 65 years-death: ego integrity vs. despair

183
Q

Adolescence

A

Period of development that begins with the onset of sexual maturity and lasts until the beginning of adulthood; associated with egocentrism, anxiety about appearance and behavior, and self-scrutiny

184
Q

Puberty

A

Bodily changes associated with sexual maturity; primary and secondary sex characteristics develop; proliferation, pruning, and lobe connections

185
Q

Personal fable

A

Young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm

186
Q

Imaginary audience

A

Young people believe that other people are just as concerned about their thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are

187
Q

Adulthood

A

Stage of development that begins around 18-21 years and ends at death
- abilities and health peak in 20’s and begin to deteriorate by 30
- physical decline of prefrontal cortex leads to general cognitive decline and psychological consequences
- memory declines, but ability to remember positive memories over negative ones becomes stronger

188
Q

Effects of the deterioration of the prefrontal cortex

A
  • more decline in retrieval accuracy than recognition accuracy
  • working memory declines faster than long term memory
  • episodic memory declines faster than semantic memory
189
Q

Socioemotional selectivity theory

A

Younger adults are oriented toward future-pertinent (useful) information while older adults focus on positive emotional satisfaction in the present

190
Q

Protracted period of adolescence

A

The age of puberty has gone down, while the age for social adulthood has gone up; results in recklessness and irresponsibility in this gap between child and adult

191
Q

Biological and genetic role in sexual orientation

A

Gynephilic = attracted to women; cerebral hemispheres tend to be or different sizes in relation to each other, regardless of gender

Androphilic = attracted to men; cerebral hemispheres tend to be the same size, regardless of gender

192
Q

Effects of adolescent sexual activity

A

Adolescents that begin having sex before age 15 tend to have lower self-worth, high anxiety, depression, aggression, and substance abuse

193
Q

Brain de-differentiation

A

The adult brain makes up for deficits by working in other ways

While the young brain has bilateral asymmetry, this disappears as the brain ages, indicating that different neural structures are helping each other in ways they wouldn’t before

PSYC 100 (6 decks)

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