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Mammalian Physiology > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Baroreceptors

A

Receptors that are sensitive to pressure and to the rate of change in pressure

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2
Q

Baroreceptors in Circulatory System

A

Aortic Arch and Carotid Sinus and throughout the rest of the cardiovascular system. Sends perception to the Cardiovascular center in the medulla.

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3
Q

Medulla Cardiovascular Center

A

Where baroreceptors send their information about blood pressure and the integration center for hemorrhagic reflex arch.

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4
Q

Hemorrhage

A

Loss of blood

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5
Q

Initial Hemorrhage Effects

A

Stroke volume decreases, heart rate stays the same, cardiac output decreases, total peripheral resistance about same, MAP decreases

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6
Q

Final Hemorrhage Effects

A

Stroke volume increases, heart rate increases, cardiac output increases, total peripheral resistance increases, MAP increases to its previous level

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7
Q

Effects of Exercise Training

A

CO stays the same, heart rate is lower, stroke volume is higher.

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8
Q

Cardiovascular changes while exercising

A

Everything increases except total peripheral resistance

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9
Q

Hypertension

A

Chronically elevated blood pressure. Higher systolic (stroke force) and diastolic (total peripheral resistance) 140/90mmHg

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10
Q

Hypotension

A

Chronically low blood pressure

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11
Q

Vasovegal sympathy

A

Fainting in order to reset body in response to shock or strong emotional response. Temporary hypotension.

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12
Q

Congestive heart failure

A

Result from some defect in the cardiac muscle so that the heart is weakened. Edema.

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13
Q

Hypertension Treatment

A

Beta blockers, block sympathetic, Ca channel blockers, block angiotension 2.

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14
Q

Myocardial Infarction

A

Hear attack where heart cannot get enough oxygen. Caused by atherosclerosis or vessels of the cardiac muscle constricting/

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15
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

Thickening of the arterial wall which changes elasticity of heart

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16
Q

Heart Attack Symptoms

A

Angia pectoris, nausea, transient ischemic attacks, enzymes in blood create phosphokinase lactate dehydrogenase.

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17
Q

Heart Attack Treatments

A

Diet, drugs, angioplasty, streptokinases, TPA, bypass.

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18
Q

Respiration Anatomy

A

Trachea, Bronchus (bronchi), Bronchiole, Alveolus (Alveoli)

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19
Q

Pulmonary Cells

A

Make up the alveoli. Two types.

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20
Q

Type 1 Pulmonary Cell

A

Gas exchange

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21
Q

Type 2 Pulmonary Cell

A

surfactant secretion and they stretch with ventilation

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22
Q

Surfactant

A

phospholipids that aid in lung compliance. Break down surface tension of water in the lungs to prevent alveolar collapse.

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23
Q

Epithelial Surface of Lungs

A

Cilia, warms air, speech, moistens air

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24
Q

Lung Compliance

A

The ability of the lung to stretch

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25
Q

Airway Resistance

A

Flow=pressure/resistance and PV=nRT while resistance is still 1/r^4

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26
Q

Pulmonary Constriction Control

A

Histamine, parasympathetic, decrease CO2, some prostaglandins

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27
Q

Pulmonary Dilation Control

A

Epinephrine, sympathetic, increase CO2, other prostaglandins

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28
Q

Asthmatic Medication

A

Antihistamines, epinephrine derivatives, leukotriene blockers (prostaglandin-like)

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29
Q

Asthma

A

Smooth muscle contraction and inflammation. Can cause mucus accumulation.

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30
Q

Movement of Air Controlling Area

A

Medulla Respirator Center (can be overridden by pons), Chemoreceptors, Inspiratory and Expiratory neurons.

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31
Q

Intrapleural Pressure

A

Normally -4mmHg. Make more negative for inspiration.

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32
Q

Layers of Pleural Sac (out to in)

A

Thoracic wall, parietal pleura, intrapleural fluid, visceral pleura, lungs.

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33
Q

Hemoglobin

A

Tetramer protein with 4 subunits each with a heme and an iron. Each subunit will bind to one oxygen molecule. Makes up a third of the erythrocyte weight.

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34
Q

Myoglobin

A

The monomer protein of hemoglobin and it has a higher oxygen affinity

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35
Q

Cellular Respiration Equation

A

C6H12O2 + 6 O2 —— 6 H2O + 6 CO2 + energy

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36
Q

Atmosphere Components

A

78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1% Argon

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37
Q

Partial Pressure of Oxygen

A

In air = 153 mmHg and in water 7.6mmHg

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38
Q

Transport of Oxygen

A

1) Dissolved 3ml/L

2) Hemoglobin 197 ml/L

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39
Q

Amount of Oxygen Moved

A

200ml oxygen per liter of blood. So if CO is 5L/minute, that means 1000ml oxygen are moved per minute.

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40
Q

Cooperative binding of hemoglobin

A

Refers to the sequential addition of O2 and that the more O2 the more likely O2 will bind. Ease of binding increases with each oxygen added.

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41
Q

Factors that Change Hb Affinity

A

1) pH - the more acid, the less oxygen carried
2) Temperature - small increase will decrease oxygen carried
3) 2,3 diphosphoglycerate (DPG) - increases in concentration from glycolysis will decrease Hb oxygen

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42
Q

Movement of CO2

A

1) (60%) As the ion bicarbonate
2) (30%) Complexed to hemoglobin (higher affinity at lower concentrations than oxygen)
3) (10%) Dissolved in plasma

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43
Q

P(co2) Changes

A

Doesn’t change greatly. Venous pH is less than arterial pH, hemoglobin has a high affinity for H+, carbonic anhydrase is very efficient enzyme.

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44
Q

Bicarbonate equation

A

H2O + CO2 —-(carbonic anhydrase)—- HCO3- + H+

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45
Q

Variable of Ventilation

A

1) P(o2) bound to hemoglobin
2) P(co2) carbonic anhydrase
3) H+

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46
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Afferent nerve endings that are sensitive to concentrations of specific chemicals like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ions. Can be peripheral (not in the brain) or central (with the brain).

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47
Q

Sleep Apnea

A

Cessation of ventilation where air going through throat is blocked. Use CPAP to keep open. Might be like SIDS.

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48
Q

Heimlich Maneuver

A

Basically forcing diaphragm up to force expire and eject lodged object.

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49
Q

Diving Response

A

1) Bradycardia - direct response of submersion via trigeminal nerve when face/nose wet and cold
2) Acidification of blood - releases oxygen
3) Circulatory pattern changes
4) Decrease in metabolism

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50
Q

SCUBA Diving Physiology

A 
1atm= 33ft salt water or 35 ft fresh water
gas compresses, water doesn't 
Assent can cause embolism
Nitrogen narcosis
oxygen toxicity
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51
Q

Cystic Fibrosis

A

Recessive gene that causes tick mucus/chronic pulmonary problems, low pancreatic secretions, concentrated sweat. Defect in chloride channel regulatory protein cAMP mediated.

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52
Q

Hypoxia

A

A deficiency of oxygen at the tissue level. Four kinds; hypoxic, anemic, ischemic, histoxic.

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53
Q

Hypoxic Hypoxia

A

Hypoventilation caused by airway resistance (asthma), respiratory muscle paralysis (polio), respiratory distress syndrome with decrease compliance, inhibition of respiratory centers via heroin or morphine, deficient alveolar-capillary diffusion (pneumonia), abnormal blood flow to ventilation matching (emphysema), Less oxygen from altitude.

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54
Q

Anemic Hypoxia

A

blood defect

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55
Q

Ischemic Hypoxia

A

blood supply defect like a heart attack

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56
Q

Histoxic Hypoxia

A

poisoned metabolic pathways C—N

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57
Q

Regulation of Blood pH

A

Lungs, digestive system, liver (non CO2 acids, digestion), renal system

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58
Q

The Renal System

A

Kidney (cortex outer layer, medulla inner), 1 artery/vein, ureter, urinary bladder w/ sphincter control, urethra

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59
Q

The Nephron Structure

A

Afferent arteriole, glomerulus (glomerular capillaries and bowman’s capsule), proximal tubule, loop of henle, distal tubule, collection duct.

60
Q

The Nephron Responsibilities

A

1) Glomerular Filtration (inulin)
2) Tubular Reabsorption (active transport)
3) Tubular Secretion (
The functional unit of the renal system

61
Q

Water in the Body

A

Filter 2.5L/day. Intake through drinking, eating, metabolic forms. Output via urine, evaporation through skin and lungs, fecal, sweat. Varies due to temp, humidity, physical condition, stress.

62
Q

Glomerular Capillary Pressure

A

Blood has 55 mmHg hydrostatic pressure while Bowman’s capsule has -15. There is a -30mmHg osmotic difference between the capillary and the capsule. Net +10?

63
Q

Glomerular Filtration

A

Between Glomerolar capillaries and Bowman’s capsule. Use inulin to judge GFR

64
Q

Inulin

A

Has a constant concentration on plasma (4mg/L). There is no reabsorption or secretion of inulin. Only filtered!

65
Q

Renal Secretion

A

Between peritubular system and the tubules where substances like penicillin will leave the blood and then leave the body. Active transport plays a role.

66
Q

Renal Reabsorption

A

The body takes things out of the proximal peritubule to be recycled. Glucose is active trasnported out. Can be a combined action.

67
Q

Heat Reabsorption

A

That happens. Heat is lost from arteriole and can be given to adjacent venules. Fuels a conservation system.

68
Q

Counter Current System

A

An area where two flows are in opposite directional setting a gradient between these two flows.

69
Q

Conservation System

A

Prevent loss, like heat going to extremities.

70
Q

Decreased GFR

A

Constrict afferent arteriole and or dilate efferent arteriole.

71
Q

Increased GFR

A

Constrict efferent arteriole and or dilate afferent arteriole

72
Q

Hormones of the Renal System

A

Atriopeptin, antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin), angiotension2, aldosterone

73
Q

Atriopeptin

A

(atrial naturetic factor;ANF) Atrial vesicles release due to volume increase of plasma, peptide hormone, collection duct effect: Na excretion and water excretion.

74
Q

Antidiuretic hormone

A

(vasopressin) peptide; released from posterior pituitary in response in osmo/chemo/baroreceptors. Increases reabsorption of water from collection ducts.

75
Q

Angiotension II

A

Released by liver as the peptide angiotensinogen that is convered by renally secreted renin to agiotension i and then II in the lungs. Renin secreted when drop in BP or increased filtration pressure. Vasoconstrict arterioles, decrease glomerulus permeability, and cause adrenal cortex to release aldosterone.

76
Q

Aldosterone

A

Released from adrenal cortex in response to angiotension II or increased plasma K. Steroid. Acts in collection ducts to conserve Na and excrete K .

77
Q

Angeotension II Regulation

A

Change in plasma sodium or volume. Decrease activity of chemo/baroreceptors and decreased sypathetic activity.

78
Q

Renal System Acid/Base Balance

A

Acidosis and alkalosis. Excrete H+ due to our high protein diet in america pH=1.4-1.1

79
Q

Kidney Problems

A

1) Physically damaged protein
2) Kidney disease - decrease # nephron function for lots of reason. Uremia = urine in the blood from decreased kidney function.
3) Treat with dialysis or transplant

80
Q

Totipotent Stem Cells

A

Will become any tissue

81
Q

Pluripotent Stem Cells

A

More differentiated to a cell type and can only become something of that type.

82
Q

Plasma Proteins

A

Albumins, globulins, fibrinogens - all produced in the liver except immunoglobulins which are formed in lymph tissue.

83
Q

Megakaryocytes

A

Platelets - important for clotting (platelets fibrogen). They do not adhere to endothelial lining of blood system but bind around a rupture to plug it.

84
Q

Erthropoietin

A

Peptide hormone released by kidneys in response to a drop in oxygen. Then goes on to promote RBC production.

85
Q

Spleen

A

Functions to remove old red cells and acts as a blood reservoir. Helps balance iron as well.

86
Q

Anemia

A

Reduced total blood hemoglobin caused by

1) Diet deficiencies Fe B12
2) Excessive blood loss
3) Red cell destruction
4) Bone marrow failure
5) Inadequate secretion of erthropoietin

87
Q

Sickle Cell Anemia

A

Hemoglobin that at low Po2 interact with each other to form fiber like structures that distort the normal shape.

88
Q

Leukocytes

A

White blood cells. Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, lymphocytes.

89
Q

Neutrophils

A

Phagocytotic

90
Q

Eosinophils

A

Destroy parasitic worms

91
Q

Basophils

A

Release histamine increase swelling

92
Q

Monocytes

A

Become macrophages

93
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Become t and b cells

94
Q

Digestion

A

the process of breaking down large particles and large molecular weight substances into smaller molecules

95
Q

Secretion

A

Process by which molecules are released by cells in response to a specific stimulus with a specific function

96
Q

Absorption

A

Movement of materials across a layer of epithelial cells from a body compartment into blood

97
Q

Feces

A

Net result of digestion, secretion, and lack of absorption - includes bacteria

98
Q

Salivary Glands

A

Fluid moistens food; mucus helps lubrication; salivary amylase is a polysaccharide digestive enzyme

99
Q

Esophogus

A

Upper and lower esophageal sphicters. Moves bolus to stomach.

100
Q

Stomach

A

Pyloric sphincter. HCl from parietal cells kills microbes and helps digestion. Mucus still lubricates and protects epithelium (has high turn over rate). Pepsin is here for those proteins.

101
Q

Pepsin

A

Protein digestive enzyme released as pepsinogen so it wont kill the cheif that release it. HCl converts the pepsinogen.

102
Q

Chyme

A

solution of partially digested food in the luman of the stomach and small intestines

103
Q

Caffeine in the Stomach

A

Stimulates acid production so chym is slowly moved to the duodemum (inhibits gastrin)

104
Q

Control of Stomach Acid Secretion

A

Target cells are the parietal cell; three phases - cephalic, gastric, intestinal

105
Q

Cephalic Phase

A

senses chewing; acts on the vagous nerves or gastrin and results in increased HCl production

106
Q

Gastric Phase

A

Disteusion, pH, peptides; acts by way of neural reflexes gastrin; results in increased HCl production.

107
Q

Intestional Phase

A

Distension, pH, osmolarity, nutrients; acts by way of neural reflexes secretin, decreased gastrin; increased secretion; results in decreased HCl production

108
Q

Motility

A

Mechanical movement. Churn the chyme. Increases when smooth muscle of stomach expands.

109
Q

HCl Secretion

A

H+ and Cl- moves independently from parietal cell. Gastrin is a hormone and Acetylcholine the neurotransmitter stimulate H+ release.

110
Q

Chyme to Small Intestine

A

Pyloric sphicter relaxes slowly; stomach muscle contraction decreased; chyme meets secretions from pancreas/gallbladder

111
Q

Small Intestine System

A

SI (enzymes, fluid, mucus), Pancreas (bicarbonate, enzyme), Liver via Gallbadder (bile)

112
Q

Regurgitation

A

Vomit - forceful expulsion of the contents of the stomach and upper intestinal tract though the mouth.

113
Q

Vomit is Response To

A

Excessive distension, psycological stimuli, tactile stimuli, chemical stimuli, cranial pressure, infection

114
Q

Vomitting Symptoms

A

Sympathetic Discharge - sweating, increased hear rate, pallor, nausea. Deep inspiration, abdominal and thorasic muscle contraction with a relaxation of the upper and lower esophageal sphicters.

115
Q

Trypsin

A

Secreted by the pancreas as trypsinogen and activated by membrane bound enterokinase.

116
Q

Bile

A

Made by the liver, stored in gallbladder. If too concentrated gallstones can form. Solubilize fats.

117
Q

Bile Components

A

1) bile salts - bilirubin (yellow)
2) Cholesterol
3) Lecithin
4) Bile bigments/organic complexes
5) Trace metals
6) Inorganic ions

118
Q

Bile Recycling

A

Enterohepatic Circulation; 95% is recycled; Liver to GB to SI to lymph/blood system back to liver

119
Q

Hormones of SI

A

Secretin and Cholecystokinin; they potentiate one another.

120
Q

Secretin

A

Stimulated by acid from the stomach and stimulates bicarbonate in liver and pancreas. Inhibits acid secretion antral contraction.

121
Q

Cholecystokinin

A

Stimulated by fatty acids then acts to secrete the pancreas anyme secretion (lipases); Gall bladder contraction; relaxes phicter of Oddi.

122
Q

Pancreas

A

Islets of lagerhorn, acinar cells, duct cells

123
Q

Islets of Langerhorn

A

alpha cells - glucagon
bets cells - insulin (dominate hormone of absorbitive phase)
delta cells - somatostatin

124
Q

Acinar Cells

A

Enzyme precursor form OGEN

125
Q

Duct Cells

A

secrete bicarbonate

126
Q

Chyme Digestion

A

1) Proteins become small peptides, amino acids, protease
2) Nucleic Acids become nucleotidases into base and sugar
3) Carbohydrates become mono/disaccharides
- All are charged and moved by sodium coupled transport

127
Q

Water Soluble Absorption

A

Proteins, culecic acids, and carbohydrates and all water soluble and are absorbed by epithelium via Na-Coupled Co transport and H ATPase and Cl Channels.

128
Q

What Digests Chyme

A

Lipase, mechanical agitation, bile to emulsify fats into micelle form.

129
Q

Absorption of Fats

A

Free fatty acids and monoglycerides can diffuse into the cells and are reformed in the ER into chylomicron to them be secreted into lymph system.

130
Q

Fat Break Down

A

Triacylglycerols use lipase and become monoglycerides and fatty acids.

131
Q

Chylomicron

A

A small lipid droplet consisting of triacylglycerols, phospholipids, cholesterol, free fatty acids, and proteins which is released by the intestinal epithelial cell and enters the laterals. Made in SI and goes to liver.

132
Q

Very low density lipoproteins

A

VLDL - made in liver and goes to body

133
Q

Low Density Lipoproteins

A

LDL - made in Liver from VLDL and goes to body

134
Q

High Density Lipoproteins

A

HDL - made in SI/Liver and goes to liver

135
Q

Large Intestine

A

Bacterial colonies (vitamins), Flatus(gas production), Rectum (mucus secretion and feces exreted); chyme from illeus, mucus lubrication, some water absorption, bile absorption

136
Q

Constipation

A

Pressure on the rectum. Longer the residency of fecal material the drier it gets. Fix: fiber binds water or laxatives lubricates oils, stimulate motility castor oil, retain water, Mg Al

137
Q

Digestive Problems

A

Heartburn, Ulcer, appendix, diarrhea, illiocolitis, diverticulitis, hemorrhoids.

138
Q

Digestion and Environmental Toxins

A

Stored in fats and liver. Metals can store in bones.

139
Q

Biotransformation of Environmental Toxins

A

Cytochrome P450, conjugation, metallothionein

140
Q

Absorptive State

A

Insulin stimulated protein anabolism, glucose entry and metabolism, fat formation, energy conservation hormone.

141
Q

Postabsorptive State

A

Glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis which makes glucose from glycogen, protein catabolism, fat metabolism, increase in plasma glucose, FA, glycerol, and ketones.

142
Q

Immune System Functions

A

Resistance from microbes and multicellular organisms, elimination of old, worn out, damaged cells, and immune surveillance

143
Q

Immune Response Types

A
  1. Nonspecific

2. Specific (requires prior exposure)

144
Q

Neutrophil or macrophage process

A

Microbe enters via endocytosis, phagosome formation, lysosome binds, phagolysosme digests microbe, release of end produces into cell, and end-products secreted.

145
Q

Lymphocyte Formation

A

1) B cells - plasma cells make antibodies and memory cells

2) T cells from Thymus

Mammalian Physiology (6 decks)

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