Exam 4 Flashcards
1
Q
Baroreceptors
A
Receptors that are sensitive to pressure and to the rate of change in pressure
2
Q
Baroreceptors in Circulatory System
A
Aortic Arch and Carotid Sinus and throughout the rest of the cardiovascular system. Sends perception to the Cardiovascular center in the medulla.
3
Q
Medulla Cardiovascular Center
A
Where baroreceptors send their information about blood pressure and the integration center for hemorrhagic reflex arch.
4
Q
Hemorrhage
A
Loss of blood
5
Q
Initial Hemorrhage Effects
A
Stroke volume decreases, heart rate stays the same, cardiac output decreases, total peripheral resistance about same, MAP decreases
6
Q
Final Hemorrhage Effects
A
Stroke volume increases, heart rate increases, cardiac output increases, total peripheral resistance increases, MAP increases to its previous level
7
Q
Effects of Exercise Training
A
CO stays the same, heart rate is lower, stroke volume is higher.
8
Q
Cardiovascular changes while exercising
A
Everything increases except total peripheral resistance
9
Q
Hypertension
A
Chronically elevated blood pressure. Higher systolic (stroke force) and diastolic (total peripheral resistance) 140/90mmHg
10
Q
Hypotension
A
Chronically low blood pressure
11
Q
Vasovegal sympathy
A
Fainting in order to reset body in response to shock or strong emotional response. Temporary hypotension.
12
Q
Congestive heart failure
A
Result from some defect in the cardiac muscle so that the heart is weakened. Edema.
13
Q
Hypertension Treatment
A
Beta blockers, block sympathetic, Ca channel blockers, block angiotension 2.
14
Q
Myocardial Infarction
A
Hear attack where heart cannot get enough oxygen. Caused by atherosclerosis or vessels of the cardiac muscle constricting/
15
Q
Atherosclerosis
A
Thickening of the arterial wall which changes elasticity of heart
16
Q
Heart Attack Symptoms
A
Angia pectoris, nausea, transient ischemic attacks, enzymes in blood create phosphokinase lactate dehydrogenase.
17
Q
Heart Attack Treatments
A
Diet, drugs, angioplasty, streptokinases, TPA, bypass.
18
Q
Respiration Anatomy
A
Trachea, Bronchus (bronchi), Bronchiole, Alveolus (Alveoli)
19
Q
Pulmonary Cells
A
Make up the alveoli. Two types.
20
Q
Type 1 Pulmonary Cell
A
Gas exchange
21
Q
Type 2 Pulmonary Cell
A
surfactant secretion and they stretch with ventilation
22
Q
Surfactant
A
phospholipids that aid in lung compliance. Break down surface tension of water in the lungs to prevent alveolar collapse.
23
Q
Epithelial Surface of Lungs
A
Cilia, warms air, speech, moistens air
24
Q
Lung Compliance
A
The ability of the lung to stretch
25
Airway Resistance
Flow=pressure/resistance and PV=nRT while resistance is still 1/r^4
26
Pulmonary Constriction Control
Histamine, parasympathetic, decrease CO2, some prostaglandins
27
Pulmonary Dilation Control
Epinephrine, sympathetic, increase CO2, other prostaglandins
28
Asthmatic Medication
Antihistamines, epinephrine derivatives, leukotriene blockers (prostaglandin-like)
29
Asthma
Smooth muscle contraction and inflammation. Can cause mucus accumulation.
30
Movement of Air Controlling Area
Medulla Respirator Center (can be overridden by pons), Chemoreceptors, Inspiratory and Expiratory neurons.
31
Intrapleural Pressure
Normally -4mmHg. Make more negative for inspiration.
32
Layers of Pleural Sac (out to in)
Thoracic wall, parietal pleura, intrapleural fluid, visceral pleura, lungs.
33
Hemoglobin
Tetramer protein with 4 subunits each with a heme and an iron. Each subunit will bind to one oxygen molecule. Makes up a third of the erythrocyte weight.
34
Myoglobin
The monomer protein of hemoglobin and it has a higher oxygen affinity
35
Cellular Respiration Equation
C6H12O2 + 6 O2 ------ 6 H2O + 6 CO2 + energy
36
Atmosphere Components
78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1% Argon
37
Partial Pressure of Oxygen
In air = 153 mmHg and in water 7.6mmHg
38
Transport of Oxygen
1) Dissolved 3ml/L
| 2) Hemoglobin 197 ml/L
39
Amount of Oxygen Moved
200ml oxygen per liter of blood. So if CO is 5L/minute, that means 1000ml oxygen are moved per minute.
40
Cooperative binding of hemoglobin
Refers to the sequential addition of O2 and that the more O2 the more likely O2 will bind. Ease of binding increases with each oxygen added.
41
Factors that Change Hb Affinity
1) pH - the more acid, the less oxygen carried
2) Temperature - small increase will decrease oxygen carried
3) 2,3 diphosphoglycerate (DPG) - increases in concentration from glycolysis will decrease Hb oxygen
42
Movement of CO2
1) (60%) As the ion bicarbonate
2) (30%) Complexed to hemoglobin (higher affinity at lower concentrations than oxygen)
3) (10%) Dissolved in plasma
43
P(co2) Changes
Doesn't change greatly. Venous pH is less than arterial pH, hemoglobin has a high affinity for H+, carbonic anhydrase is very efficient enzyme.
44
Bicarbonate equation
H2O + CO2 ----(carbonic anhydrase)---- HCO3- + H+
45
Variable of Ventilation
1) P(o2) bound to hemoglobin
2) P(co2) carbonic anhydrase
3) H+
46
Chemoreceptors
Afferent nerve endings that are sensitive to concentrations of specific chemicals like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ions. Can be peripheral (not in the brain) or central (with the brain).
47
Sleep Apnea
Cessation of ventilation where air going through throat is blocked. Use CPAP to keep open. Might be like SIDS.
48
Heimlich Maneuver
Basically forcing diaphragm up to force expire and eject lodged object.
49
Diving Response
1) Bradycardia - direct response of submersion via trigeminal nerve when face/nose wet and cold
2) Acidification of blood - releases oxygen
3) Circulatory pattern changes
4) Decrease in metabolism
50
SCUBA Diving Physiology
```
1atm= 33ft salt water or 35 ft fresh water
gas compresses, water doesn't
Assent can cause embolism
Nitrogen narcosis
oxygen toxicity
```
51
Cystic Fibrosis
Recessive gene that causes tick mucus/chronic pulmonary problems, low pancreatic secretions, concentrated sweat. Defect in chloride channel regulatory protein cAMP mediated.
52
Hypoxia
A deficiency of oxygen at the tissue level. Four kinds; hypoxic, anemic, ischemic, histoxic.
53
Hypoxic Hypoxia
Hypoventilation caused by airway resistance (asthma), respiratory muscle paralysis (polio), respiratory distress syndrome with decrease compliance, inhibition of respiratory centers via heroin or morphine, deficient alveolar-capillary diffusion (pneumonia), abnormal blood flow to ventilation matching (emphysema), Less oxygen from altitude.
54
Anemic Hypoxia
blood defect
55
Ischemic Hypoxia
blood supply defect like a heart attack
56
Histoxic Hypoxia
poisoned metabolic pathways C---N
57
Regulation of Blood pH
Lungs, digestive system, liver (non CO2 acids, digestion), renal system
58
The Renal System
Kidney (cortex outer layer, medulla inner), 1 artery/vein, ureter, urinary bladder w/ sphincter control, urethra
59
The Nephron Structure
Afferent arteriole, glomerulus (glomerular capillaries and bowman's capsule), proximal tubule, loop of henle, distal tubule, collection duct.
60
The Nephron Responsibilities
1) Glomerular Filtration (inulin)
2) Tubular Reabsorption (active transport)
3) Tubular Secretion (
The functional unit of the renal system
61
Water in the Body
Filter 2.5L/day. Intake through drinking, eating, metabolic forms. Output via urine, evaporation through skin and lungs, fecal, sweat. Varies due to temp, humidity, physical condition, stress.
62
Glomerular Capillary Pressure
Blood has 55 mmHg hydrostatic pressure while Bowman's capsule has -15. There is a -30mmHg osmotic difference between the capillary and the capsule. Net +10?
63
Glomerular Filtration
Between Glomerolar capillaries and Bowman's capsule. Use inulin to judge GFR
64
Inulin
Has a constant concentration on plasma (4mg/L). There is no reabsorption or secretion of inulin. Only filtered!
65
Renal Secretion
Between peritubular system and the tubules where substances like penicillin will leave the blood and then leave the body. Active transport plays a role.
66
Renal Reabsorption
The body takes things out of the proximal peritubule to be recycled. Glucose is active trasnported out. Can be a combined action.
67
Heat Reabsorption
That happens. Heat is lost from arteriole and can be given to adjacent venules. Fuels a conservation system.
68
Counter Current System
An area where two flows are in opposite directional setting a gradient between these two flows.
69
Conservation System
Prevent loss, like heat going to extremities.
70
Decreased GFR
Constrict afferent arteriole and or dilate efferent arteriole.
71
Increased GFR
Constrict efferent arteriole and or dilate afferent arteriole
72
Hormones of the Renal System
Atriopeptin, antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin), angiotension2, aldosterone
73
Atriopeptin
(atrial naturetic factor;ANF) Atrial vesicles release due to volume increase of plasma, peptide hormone, collection duct effect: Na excretion and water excretion.
74
Antidiuretic hormone
(vasopressin) peptide; released from posterior pituitary in response in osmo/chemo/baroreceptors. Increases reabsorption of water from collection ducts.
75
Angiotension II
Released by liver as the peptide angiotensinogen that is convered by renally secreted renin to agiotension i and then II in the lungs. Renin secreted when drop in BP or increased filtration pressure. Vasoconstrict arterioles, decrease glomerulus permeability, and cause adrenal cortex to release aldosterone.
76
Aldosterone
Released from adrenal cortex in response to angiotension II or increased plasma K. Steroid. Acts in collection ducts to conserve Na and excrete K .
77
Angeotension II Regulation
Change in plasma sodium or volume. Decrease activity of chemo/baroreceptors and decreased sypathetic activity.
78
Renal System Acid/Base Balance
Acidosis and alkalosis. Excrete H+ due to our high protein diet in america pH=1.4-1.1
79
Kidney Problems
1) Physically damaged protein
2) Kidney disease - decrease # nephron function for lots of reason. Uremia = urine in the blood from decreased kidney function.
3) Treat with dialysis or transplant
80
Totipotent Stem Cells
Will become any tissue
81
Pluripotent Stem Cells
More differentiated to a cell type and can only become something of that type.
82
Plasma Proteins
Albumins, globulins, fibrinogens - all produced in the liver except immunoglobulins which are formed in lymph tissue.
83
Megakaryocytes
Platelets - important for clotting (platelets fibrogen). They do not adhere to endothelial lining of blood system but bind around a rupture to plug it.
84
Erthropoietin
Peptide hormone released by kidneys in response to a drop in oxygen. Then goes on to promote RBC production.
85
Spleen
Functions to remove old red cells and acts as a blood reservoir. Helps balance iron as well.
86
Anemia
Reduced total blood hemoglobin caused by
1) Diet deficiencies Fe B12
2) Excessive blood loss
3) Red cell destruction
4) Bone marrow failure
5) Inadequate secretion of erthropoietin
87
Sickle Cell Anemia
Hemoglobin that at low Po2 interact with each other to form fiber like structures that distort the normal shape.
88
Leukocytes
White blood cells. Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, lymphocytes.
89
Neutrophils
Phagocytotic
90
Eosinophils
Destroy parasitic worms
91
Basophils
Release histamine increase swelling
92
Monocytes
Become macrophages
93
Lymphocytes
Become t and b cells
94
Digestion
the process of breaking down large particles and large molecular weight substances into smaller molecules
95
Secretion
Process by which molecules are released by cells in response to a specific stimulus with a specific function
96
Absorption
Movement of materials across a layer of epithelial cells from a body compartment into blood
97
Feces
Net result of digestion, secretion, and lack of absorption - includes bacteria
98
Salivary Glands
Fluid moistens food; mucus helps lubrication; salivary amylase is a polysaccharide digestive enzyme
99
Esophogus
Upper and lower esophageal sphicters. Moves bolus to stomach.
100
Stomach
Pyloric sphincter. HCl from parietal cells kills microbes and helps digestion. Mucus still lubricates and protects epithelium (has high turn over rate). Pepsin is here for those proteins.
101
Pepsin
Protein digestive enzyme released as pepsinogen so it wont kill the cheif that release it. HCl converts the pepsinogen.
102
Chyme
solution of partially digested food in the luman of the stomach and small intestines
103
Caffeine in the Stomach
Stimulates acid production so chym is slowly moved to the duodemum (inhibits gastrin)
104
Control of Stomach Acid Secretion
Target cells are the parietal cell; three phases - cephalic, gastric, intestinal
105
Cephalic Phase
senses chewing; acts on the vagous nerves or gastrin and results in increased HCl production
106
Gastric Phase
Disteusion, pH, peptides; acts by way of neural reflexes gastrin; results in increased HCl production.
107
Intestional Phase
Distension, pH, osmolarity, nutrients; acts by way of neural reflexes secretin, decreased gastrin; increased secretion; results in decreased HCl production
108
Motility
Mechanical movement. Churn the chyme. Increases when smooth muscle of stomach expands.
109
HCl Secretion
H+ and Cl- moves independently from parietal cell. Gastrin is a hormone and Acetylcholine the neurotransmitter stimulate H+ release.
110
Chyme to Small Intestine
Pyloric sphicter relaxes slowly; stomach muscle contraction decreased; chyme meets secretions from pancreas/gallbladder
111
Small Intestine System
SI (enzymes, fluid, mucus), Pancreas (bicarbonate, enzyme), Liver via Gallbadder (bile)
112
Regurgitation
Vomit - forceful expulsion of the contents of the stomach and upper intestinal tract though the mouth.
113
Vomit is Response To
Excessive distension, psycological stimuli, tactile stimuli, chemical stimuli, cranial pressure, infection
114
Vomitting Symptoms
Sympathetic Discharge - sweating, increased hear rate, pallor, nausea. Deep inspiration, abdominal and thorasic muscle contraction with a relaxation of the upper and lower esophageal sphicters.
115
Trypsin
Secreted by the pancreas as trypsinogen and activated by membrane bound enterokinase.
116
Bile
Made by the liver, stored in gallbladder. If too concentrated gallstones can form. Solubilize fats.
117
Bile Components
1) bile salts - bilirubin (yellow)
2) Cholesterol
3) Lecithin
4) Bile bigments/organic complexes
5) Trace metals
6) Inorganic ions
118
Bile Recycling
Enterohepatic Circulation; 95% is recycled; Liver to GB to SI to lymph/blood system back to liver
119
Hormones of SI
Secretin and Cholecystokinin; they potentiate one another.
120
Secretin
Stimulated by acid from the stomach and stimulates bicarbonate in liver and pancreas. Inhibits acid secretion antral contraction.
121
Cholecystokinin
Stimulated by fatty acids then acts to secrete the pancreas anyme secretion (lipases); Gall bladder contraction; relaxes phicter of Oddi.
122
Pancreas
Islets of lagerhorn, acinar cells, duct cells
123
Islets of Langerhorn
alpha cells - glucagon
bets cells - insulin (dominate hormone of absorbitive phase)
delta cells - somatostatin
124
Acinar Cells
Enzyme precursor form OGEN
125
Duct Cells
secrete bicarbonate
126
Chyme Digestion
1) Proteins become small peptides, amino acids, protease
2) Nucleic Acids become nucleotidases into base and sugar
3) Carbohydrates become mono/disaccharides
- All are charged and moved by sodium coupled transport
127
Water Soluble Absorption
Proteins, culecic acids, and carbohydrates and all water soluble and are absorbed by epithelium via Na-Coupled Co transport and H ATPase and Cl Channels.
128
What Digests Chyme
Lipase, mechanical agitation, bile to emulsify fats into micelle form.
129
Absorption of Fats
Free fatty acids and monoglycerides can diffuse into the cells and are reformed in the ER into chylomicron to them be secreted into lymph system.
130
Fat Break Down
Triacylglycerols use lipase and become monoglycerides and fatty acids.
131
Chylomicron
A small lipid droplet consisting of triacylglycerols, phospholipids, cholesterol, free fatty acids, and proteins which is released by the intestinal epithelial cell and enters the laterals. Made in SI and goes to liver.
132
Very low density lipoproteins
VLDL - made in liver and goes to body
133
Low Density Lipoproteins
LDL - made in Liver from VLDL and goes to body
134
High Density Lipoproteins
HDL - made in SI/Liver and goes to liver
135
Large Intestine
Bacterial colonies (vitamins), Flatus(gas production), Rectum (mucus secretion and feces exreted); chyme from illeus, mucus lubrication, some water absorption, bile absorption
136
Constipation
Pressure on the rectum. Longer the residency of fecal material the drier it gets. Fix: fiber binds water or laxatives lubricates oils, stimulate motility castor oil, retain water, Mg Al
137
Digestive Problems
Heartburn, Ulcer, appendix, diarrhea, illiocolitis, diverticulitis, hemorrhoids.
138
Digestion and Environmental Toxins
Stored in fats and liver. Metals can store in bones.
139
Biotransformation of Environmental Toxins
Cytochrome P450, conjugation, metallothionein
140
Absorptive State
Insulin stimulated protein anabolism, glucose entry and metabolism, fat formation, energy conservation hormone.
141
Postabsorptive State
Glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis which makes glucose from glycogen, protein catabolism, fat metabolism, increase in plasma glucose, FA, glycerol, and ketones.
142
Immune System Functions
Resistance from microbes and multicellular organisms, elimination of old, worn out, damaged cells, and immune surveillance
143
Immune Response Types
1. Nonspecific
| 2. Specific (requires prior exposure)
144
Neutrophil or macrophage process
Microbe enters via endocytosis, phagosome formation, lysosome binds, phagolysosme digests microbe, release of end produces into cell, and end-products secreted.
145
Lymphocyte Formation
1) B cells - plasma cells make antibodies and memory cells
| 2) T cells from Thymus
