Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Glial Cells
A
nonexcitable, speed conduction, insulate, absorb K+, provide nutrients, remove waste, digest dead cells, cell parts, aid migration, elaborate and move spinal fluid.
2
Q
Action Potential
A
Changes in potential are a local event
3
Q
Nerve Track
A
Multiple nerves getting activated at different action potentials
4
Q
Saltatory Conduction
A
Action potential jumps between nodes of Ranvier across the myelinated sections of the nerve. Much faster than the non-myelinated nerves
5
Q
Refractory Period
A
The resetting of the Na+ channel which keeps impulse going one way
6
Q
Absolute Refractory Period
A
When no amount of added stimuli will cause an action potential to start
7
Q
Relative Refractory Period
A
The further away from the initial stimulus, the less intense stimulation needed until threshold is again reached.
8
Q
Orthograde
A
towards Axon terminal and uses kinesin
9
Q
Retrograde
A
Towards the cell body and uses dynein
10
Q
Graded Potential
A
Dependent membrane permeability changes to K, Na, Cl, HCO3, and Ca. Variable polarity and they are additive/summation. May be the result of a local ion permeability change.
11
Q
Temperol Summation
A
The same stimulus adding on itself causing a graded potential
12
Q
Spatial Summation
A
Two different types of stimulation that add together causing a graded potential
13
Q
Electrical Synapsis
A
Proteins called conexons form pores between the cells, permit the movement of small molecular weight molecules and charges. (Gap Junction)
14
Q
Chemical Synapsis
A
Neurotransmitter-receptor
15
Q
Synaptic Transmission Combines
A
Action potential, synapse, Calcium Calmodulin, Exocytosis, Release Neurotransmitter, Receptor funtion, change membrane potential
16
Q
Synapse
A
Anatomical specialized junction between two neurons where chemical transmission ocuurs
17
Q
Synaptic Transmission
A
AP arrives at the presynaptic membrane ( synaptic or axon knob), Ca2+ channels open, cytosolic Ca2+ increases causing synaptic vesicles to move and fuse with cell membrane, neurotransmitter released into synaptic cleft, diffues/migrates to post synaptic receptor thus opening or closeing specific ion channels. CaATPase moves Ca out as AP dissipates. Net result…dep or hyper polarization
18
Q
Neurotransmitter Fate
A
- Bind to receptor
- Enzymatic transformation
- Diffuse
- Active Reuptake
- Auto Receptor (on pre-synaptic membrane)
19
Q
Calcium Signal
A
Action potential dependent, many AP and the Ca2+ channels will stay open, decrease AP frequency and the channels will close, Ca ATPase moves calcium out.
20
Q
Neurotransmitter Goups
A
- Aceylcholine
- Monoamines
- Amino Acids
- Gases
- Peptides
- Purines
21
Q
Aceylcholine (as neurotransmitter)
A
Binds to both nicotinic receptors and muscarinic receptors. They are completely separate.
22
Q
Monoamines-Biogenic Amines (as nerotransmitter)
A
Includes Catacholamines, Serotonin (different receptor), and Hitamines. Use Apha-Andrenic receptors and beta-andrenic receptors which overlap often and use second messengers.
23
Q
Catacholamines
A
Monoamine neurotransmitters that are derived from Tyrosine. L-DOPA, Dopamine, Norephinephrine, epinephrine.
24
Q
Amino Acids (as neurotransmitters)
A
Glycine, GABA (gamma amino-butyric acid/valium) Glutamate, Aspartate.
25
Gasses (as neurotransmitter)
Nitric Oxide (NO), Carbon monoxide (CO)
26
Peptides (as neurotransmitters)
Enkephalons, endorphins, VIP, Insulin, Gastirn, ADH, GnRH,
27
EPSP
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential when depolarizing occurs
28
IPSP
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials when hyperpolarizing occurs (graded potential).
29
AP determined?
Depends of frequency and type of stimulation. More impulses more message.
30
AP Uniqueness
Thousands of connections means nothing is ever the same.
31
Convergent Synapses
Multiple dendrites feed into a single axon terminal and thus propagate to a single dendrite.
32
Divergent Synapses
A single dendrite has multiple axon terminals feeding into multiple dendrites.
33
Synaptic Delay
a time delay between the arrival of the AP at the synaptic terminal and membrane potential changes at the post synaptic membrane.
34
Choline acetyl transferase
Makes Ach in the presynaptic neuron.
35
Acetylcholine esterase
Breaks down Ach in the presynaptic neuron and in the synaptic cleft.
36
Monoamie Oxidase
Breaks down monoamine neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft and presynaptic neuron.
37
Grey Matter
Interneron glial cells responsible for "reflex". Efferent goes to muscle to flex of withdrawl from stimulus.
38
Cholinergic Nerve Pathways
Nerve pathways that use acetylcholine
39
Central Nervous Sysem
Brain and spinal cord. Center of thoughts, interpreter of environment, and origin of control over body.
40
Peripheral Nervous System
Connect the CNS to the limbs and organs. All the neurons not in CNS.
41
Afferent Division
Sensory Systems
42
Efferent Division
Motor Systems
43
Somatic
Voluntary nerve system associated with skeletal muscle.
44
Autonomic
Regulates functions of our internal organs and also may control some muscles within our body
45
Parasympathetic
Controls homeostasis and is responsible for the body's "rest and digest" functions
46
Sympathetic
Controls body's response to a perceived threat and is responsible for "fight of flight" response.
47
CNS Excitatory Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine and norephinephrine
48
CNS Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
GABA, Seritonin, Endorphins, Dopamine
49
GABA
Valium is used as an antagonist
50
Seritonin
LSD is an antagonist
51
Endorphins
Heroin is an antagonist
52
Parkinson's Disease
Caused by lack of dopamine and treated with L-DOPA
53
Schizophrenia
Caused by excess dopamine and treated with chloropromazine antagonist.
54
Depression
Calcium channel blockers as possible treatment.
55
Manic Depression
Problems may come from regulatory or ion balance. Can be treated with Lithium
56
Epilepsy
Caused by discharge of excitatory neurotransmitters and can be treated with dilation agonist for inhibitory nerves.
57
Hyperchondriasis
Nervous disorder caused by abnormally high numbers of ESPS
58
Tenanus
Nervous disorder caused by a toxin released from bracteria which causes ISPS's to be elimiated. Results in muscle spasm/lock jaw.
59
Nerve Gas
Affects nervous system by inhibiting Acetylcholine esterase. Cannot feel but the excitatory impulses remain.
60
Cerebrum
Consciousness, motor control, speech, muscle movement, memory, personality.
61
Cerebellum
Integration center for skeletal muscle function and balance. May dampen inputs and predict.
62
Medulla
Control of respiration and cardiovascular control
63
Thalamus
Integration of sensory input to the cerebrum
64
Hypothalamus
Endocrine function, temperature regulation, feeding, emotions.
65
Blood-Brain Barrier
High-density cells that restrict passage of substances from the bloodstream
66
Choriod Plexus
Cerebrospinal fluid
67
Stimulus
Binding to a receptor photon activated chemical change, pressure change, membrane permeability change.
68
The code for Magnitude
Is frequency and recruitment
69
Stimulus Characteristics
Modality, Quality, Intensity, Location, and Duration. Magnitude is coded by frequency.
70
Modality
Type of stimulus (light v. sound)
71
Quality
Stimulus variability (color v. pitch)
72
Intensity
Magnitude (bright v. loud)
73
Location
Geographic where. Dual organs.
74
Duration
Time interval. Affects accommodation.
75
Somatic Nervous System
Excitatory through a single neuron and uses acetylcholine on skeletal muscles
76
Sympathetic
Two neurons that use Ach and can affect smooth muscle, cardiac muscles, and glads. Terminal neurotransmitter is norephinephrine. Responds to action and stress involuntarily.
77
Parasympathetic
Two neurons that use Ach and can affect smooth muscle, cardiac muscles, and glads. Can excite or inhibit to get involuntary rest/digestion.
78
Sympathetic Vs. Parasympathetic
Dual innervation of each other. One is always opposite the other. Thus, bot can excite or inhibit.
79
Hormone
A specialized chemical messenger secreted by an endocrine gland.
80
Endocrine Glad
A group of cells that secretes a chemical messenger into the extracellular space and messenger enters the blood system to effect a target organ in another location. A DUCTLESS GLAD
81
Exocrine Glad
A group of cells that secrete a product into a duct that leads to a specific space.
82
Hormone Chemical Classes
Amines, Peptide, and Steroids
83
Amines (as hormones)
Thyroxine/Triiodothyronine and epinephrine/norepinephrine
84
Peptides (as hormones)
Prolactin, oxytocin, insulin, vassopressin (ADH), calcitonin.
85
Steroids (as hormones)
Aldosterone, Cortisol, testosterone, estrogen
86
Transport of Hormones in Blood
Prohormone or as bound hormones
87
Prohormone
large peptide that are enzymatically cleaved to form the active hormone. SO it's a precursor.
88
Bound Hormone
a hormone that is not very water soluble (lipids, thyroxine) is bound and carried by plasma proteins forming a Hormone-Protein Complex.
89
Glucocorticoids
Steroids that are synthesized from cholesterol that includes corticosterone and cortisol
90
Mechanism of Action for Peptides and Monoamines
Lipid insoluble, binds to receptor on cell membrane, activates adenylate cyclase or calcium channels, increase second messenger, activate protein kinases (calmodulin), phosphorylate/activate cell enzymes, and stimulate cell function.
91
Mechanism of Action for Steroids and Thyroid Hormone
Lipid soluble, enter cell, binds with specific receptor in cytoplasm, receptor-hormone complex goes into cell nucleus, bind to DNA-associated protein, trigger transcription, mRNA to ER, get new protein, change cell function.
92
Hormone Interaction
Potentiation/permissiveness and Pharacological Effects
93
Potentiation Example
Thyroid hormones have no response in adipose. Epinephrine causes a small amount of fatty acids released in adipose.
Thyroid hormones and epinephrine together in adipose cells cause a large amount of fatty acids to be released.
94
Potentiation/permissiveness
With two hormones present, one will be responsible for the other hormone to exert a full effect.
95
Pharmacological Effects of Excessive Hormone secretion
Good: Cortisol suppresses allergy and inflammation
Bad: Excessive growth hormone causes giantism or acromegaly with excessive steroid use
96
Pharmacological Effects of Decreased Hormone Secretion
Lack of insulin causes diabetes and lack of growth hormone can delay growth.
97
Factors that Cause Hormone Release
Neuronal, Hormonal, Ionic, Organic/Nutrient
98
Neuronal Signal Causing Hormone Release
Nipple stimulation, hypothalamus, prolactin inhibitin hormone relase decreased or prolactin releaseing hormone increased.
Also, nip stim, hypo, post pit, oxytocin, mam gland, milk letdown
99
Full Prolactin Example
Nipple stimulation, hypothalamus, dopamine release decreased (decrease prolactin inhibitin hornmone) anterior pituitary, prolactin released, mammary glands, stimulation milk production.
100
Thyroid Hormone Releasing Pattern
```
Hypothalamus
-Thyrotropin Releaseing Hormone
Anterior Pituitary
-Thyroid Stimulation Hormone*
Thyroid Gland
-Thyroxine or Triiodothyronin*
Target Cells
-Increase metabolism
*hormonally induced release
```
101
T3
Triiodothyronin
102
T4
Thyroxine
103
TRP and TSP
Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone and Thyroid Simmulation Hormone are both peptide hormones.
104
Ionic Release of Hormone
Increase plasma calcium, thyroid cells, secrete calcitonin, inhibit bone calcium release, decrease plasma calcium.
105
Decrease in Plasma Calcium
Parathyroid glad, Parathyroid Hormone released into the circulatory system, osteocytes release calcium, increase in plasma calcium, decrease of initial stimulus.
106
Organic Release of Hormone
Increase plasma glucose, pancreas beta cells, stimulation of insulin secretion, increase plasma insulin, decrease plasma glucose.
OR
Decrease plasma glucose, pancreatic alpha cell secrete glucagon, increase plasma glucose.
107
Insulin Action
Maintains plasma glucose levels to 70-120mg% by stimulating glycolysis, CAC, protein anabolism, glycogen anabolism, and lipogenesis. Signals absorption state.
108
Glucagon Action
Maintain plasma glucose levels to 70-120% by stimulating gluconeogenesis, protein catabolism, glycogen catabolism, fat breakdown/acetyl CoA. Released during starved state.
109
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
Oxytocin and Vasopression (anti duretic hormone) via nerve tracts
110
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
THS, GH, ACTH, FSH, Prolactin, LH
111
Anterior Pituitary Linkage
```
Hypothalamus
-Releasing Factor via portal system
Anterior Pituitary
-Trophic Hormone via blood
Endocrine Gland
-travel in blood
Hormone
```
112
Thyroid Hormone Releasing Pattern
```
Hypothalamus
-Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone
Anterior Pituitary
-Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
Thyroid Gland
-Thyroxine (T4) or Triiodothyronine (T3)
Target Cells
-Increase Metabolism
```
113
Portal System
A circulation pattern that goes from one capillary bed to another without passing through the heart (hypothalamus to anterior pituitary)
114
Glucocorticoids
```
Stress and Circadian Brain input
Hypothalamus
-Corticotrophin Releasing Hormone
Anterior Pituitary
-Adrenal Corticotrophic Hormone
Adrenal Cortex
-Cortisol, corticosterone
Effector Cells in Liver (Metabolism Immune Response)
```
115
CRH
Corticotrophin Releasing Hormone
116
ACTH
Adrenal corticotrophic hormone
117
Corticosterone in other Mammals
Change metabolism and influence immune system
118
Adrenal Glands and Cortioctcoids
In males, this coritsol tissue can release testosterone
119
Growth Hormone Promoters
Exercise, sleep, fasting, stress, low plasma glucose
120
Growth Hormone
```
Hypothalamus
-somatostatin(-) growth hormone releasing hormone (+)
Anterior Pituitary
-Growth Hormone
Liver
-Insulin-like Growth Hormone 1
Protein anabolism renewal and growth
```
121
Prolactin
```
Nipple Stimulation
Hypothalamus
-Prolactin Releasing Hormone (+) Dopamine/PIH (-)
Anterior Pituitary
-Prolactin
Mammary Glands
Stimulate milk production
```
122
Puberty
Sexual maturation
123
Adolescence
total change to an adult
124
Sperm Production
Spermatogium, primary spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes, spermatids in seminier tubuals, mature spermatizoa
125
Sertoli Cells
Form "blood-testes" barrier, provide nutrients to the mature(ing) spermatozoa, and serve as an endocrine cell by releasing inhibin and are stimulated by FSH
126
Interstitial Cells
Are endocrine cells which release testosterone and is stimulated by LH
127
Male Endocrinology
```
Hypothalamus
-Gonadotrophic Releasing Hormone
Anterior Pituitary
-Folical Stimulating Hormone
-Lutenizing Hormone
Testes
-Testosterone(Interstitial Cells)
-Inhibin (Sertoli Cells)
```
128
Effects of Testosterone
Promote spermatogenesis, induce differentiation and maintain function of amle accesory organs, induce and maintain secondary sex characteristics, stimulate protein anabolism and bone growth, maintain sex drive and aggressive behavior, negative feedback of LH secrestion
129
Prostate Gland
Testosterone accessory glad that secretes prostate fluid which makes up sperm and also pushes sperm out
130
Bulbourethral Gland
Testosterone accessory glad that provides fluid and nutrients
131
Oovm Producation
Oogonia (46), Primary Oocytes (46), 23, Oovum (23) and some polar bodies.
132
Female Endocrinology Phase 1
```
Hypothalamus
-Gonadotrophic Releasing hormone
Anterior Pituitary
-Follicle Stimulating Hormone
-Lutenizing Hormone
Ovaries
-Estrogen (Follicle/Granulosa Cell (-))
-Inhibin (Follicle (-))
```
133
Female Endocrinology Phase 2
```
Hypothalamus
-Gonadotrophic Releasing Hormone
Anterior Pituitary
-Follicle Stimulating Hormone
-Lutenizing Hormone
Ovaries
-Estrogen (Follice/Granulosa cells (+))
-Inhibin (Follicle (-))
```
134
Female Endocrinology Phase 3
```
Hypothalamus
-Gonadotrophic Releasing Hormone
Anterior Pituitary
-Follicle Stimulating Hormone
-Lutenizing Hormonw
Ovaries in the Corpus Luteum
-Estrogen and Progesterone (-)
-Inhibin (Follicle (-))
```
135
Endometrium
The unterine lining. Growth stimulated by estrogen. Shed during menstration and where a embryo implants.
136
Myometrium
Smooth muscle layer beneath endrometrium
137
Mucus Secretion
Stimulated by estrogen; abundant and nonviscous. When high progesterone levels, become very viscous.
138
Period Time Line
21-35 days on average
Phase 1: 0-8days
Phase 2: mid-follicular to ovulation
Phase 3: menstruation
139
Corpus Luteum
"Yellow Body" made of old granuolas, it becomes a temporary hormone releasing organ
140
No Fertilization
Progesterone and estrogen are reduced and prostaglandins mediate degradation of the corpus luteum
141
Menstruation
Drop in estrogen and progesterone affect endometrium. Prostagladins are produced along with vasoconstriction reducing O2 and nutrients. Endometrium degenerates. Prostaglandins cause uterine smooth muscle to constrict. Vasodilation occurs and endometrium hemorrhages. Endometrium lost.
142
Dysmenorrhea
Menstural cramps caused by prostagladins stimulating smooth muscle of the uterus to constrict.
143
Endometriosis
Some endometrium goes into abdomine by exiting through the Fallopian tubes. Can then grow there.
144
Low Plasma Estrogen
Hypothalamus secrets less GnRH so less FSH and LH (negative feedback)
145
High Plasma Estrogen
Hypothalamus secretes more GnRH so there's more FSH and LH (positive feedback)
146
High Plasma Estrogen and Progesterone
Inhibits GnRH so less FSH and LH are released
147
Inhibin
A peptide that inhibits FSH
148
Effects of Estrogen
Increase growth of ovaries and follicles, growth and maintenance of reproductive tract (motility-uterine tubes, uterus, preps endometrium for progesterone), Simulate secondary sexual characteristic growth, vascular effects, feeds back on hypothalamus and pituitary, regulation of fluid, stimulates prolactin secretion inhibits prolactin milk inducing actions.
149
Effects of Progesterone
Simulated secretions of endometrial glands and growth of myometrium during pregnancy, decreases motility of uterine tubes and uterus, stimulate breast growth, inhibit milk producing effect of prolactin, negative feedback on hypothalamus and anterior pituitary.
150
Effects of Prostaglandins
In the ovary it interferes with function of corpus luteum
151
Prostaglandin Effect on Endometrium
Without fertilization will constrict blood vessels for menstruation onset. With fertilization will change circulatory patter to facilitate implantation.
152
Prostaglandin Effect of Myometrium
Increase smooth muscle contration. Helps menstruation and also starts up parturition.
153
Menopause
Occurs around ages 40-50 and the ovaries cease functioning so estrogen levels progressively decrease. Can lead to bone demineralization/osteoperosis
154
Erection
Parasympathetic nervous system and NO (ED medication works through NO pathway to dilate arteries)
155
Orgasm
Linked to sympathetic nervous system
156
Capacitation
The acidic environment on the vagina cause sperm to do this. Necessary to be able to fertilize egg.
157
Fertilization Progression
Sperm and egg together form a zygote with 46 chromosomes. Travel down uterine tube for 3-4 days while dividing. Goes to Uterus. Implants after about 7 days.
158
Trophoblast Cells
Starts on contact and as they grow they release chorionic gonadotrophin
159
Chorionic Gonadotropin
Maintains the corpus luteum while the placenta is forming blood-placenta barrier. First peak excreted in urine and what is detected on pregnancy tests.
160
Cervical Glads
During development they produce a thick mucas to create a barrier
161
Placenta
Age dependent and lasts 9-10 months. Responsible for nutrient and waste exchange.
162
Fetal hemoglobin
Has a higher affinity for oxygen but the production to "adult" hemoglobin starts almost immediately after birth.
163
Parturition
Cortisol signal from fetus, estrogen and progesterone drop, mucus plug lost, chorioamnion is ruptured, uterine contractions, relaxin (peptide) dissolved pelvic cartilage, dialation of cervix, dropping of fetus to birth canal.
164
Vernix
White film child is covered with when it first comes out
165
Maconium
First bowel movement. If too soon sign of fetal distress
166
Colostrum
The first milk. Switches to milk with water, lactose, fal, lg, and proteins
167
Placenta after Birth
Myometrium contracts into size of softball, squishing the placenta with it.
