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Bio 319 (A&P) > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

Neuron vs nerve

A

Neuron: Single nervous system cell
Nerve: Bundle of axons (neurons)

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2
Q

Nervous tissue is excitable

A

Generates AP from RMP
Excitable: Allow signals to transmit fast, immediate response to stimuli, etc.

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3
Q

Forebrain

A

Prosencephalon;
Cerebrum;
Diencephalon: Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus;
Telencephalon: Cerebral hemispheres (cortex), basal nuclei, limbic system; Responsible for higher cognitive functions

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4
Q

Midbrain

A

Mesencephalon;
Reticular activating centers; Alert/awake/consciousness (caffeine blocks adenosine receptors)

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5
Q

Hindbrain

A

Rhombencephalon; Cerebellum; Medulla oblongata; Pons; Controls basic-life sustaining functions and motor coordination

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6
Q

Spinal cord components

A

Medulla oblongata and pons

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7
Q

Dienecephalon

A

Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus

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8
Q

Main parts of the brain

A

Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Diencephalon, Brainstem

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9
Q

Reticular activating centers

A

A network of neurons that regulate sleep-wake transition and arousal; Located in the brainstem (above the spinal cord) in the midbrain; Secretes acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine, histamine

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10
Q

Medulla oblongata

A

Located in brainstem; Sits beneath the pons and above the spinal cord; Heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, blood flow, vomiting, swallowing

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11
Q

Pons

A

Located in brainstem; Beneath the midbrain and above the medulla oblongata; Balance and posture

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12
Q

Sulcus

A

A depression; Increase surface area; Greater number of neurons that can be packed in the cerebral cortex; Central sulcus

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13
Q

Central sulcus

A

AKA central fissure; Separates frontal and parietal lobes; Separates primary motor and primary somatic sensory cortex

https://www.imaios.com/en/e-anatomy/anatomical-structure/central-sulcus-1553797948

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14
Q

Fissure

A

Deeper and more prominent than a sulcus; Longitudinal fissure

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15
Q

Longitudinal fissure

A

Separates left and right halves of brain; Creates cerebral hemispheres; Connected by corpus callosum

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16
Q

Brainstem

A

Composed of medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain; Connects the brain to the spinal cord

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17
Q

Cerebellum

A

Coordination, muscle tone, intricate movements, spatial equilibrium

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18
Q

Female vs male brain

A

Female brain is better at multitasking; increase in corpus callosum, leading to an increase in synapse connections

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19
Q

Substantia nigra

A

Located in midbrain; Part of the brainstem; Primary function is to produce dopamine (dopaminergic); A modulator for pyramidal tracts

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20
Q

Relationship between Parkinson’s and substantia nigra

A

In patients with Parkinson’s, dopamine producing neurons degenerate in the Substantia nigra which means pyramidal tracts cant send out signals properly, resulting in impaired motor control (tremors)

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21
Q

Pyramidal tracts

A

Main motor pathways that directly control voluntary movement by transmitting signals from the motor cortex to the spinal cord;

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22
Q

Limbic system

A

Paleomammalian cortex (old); Above the brainstem and within the temporal lobe; Made pf amygdala, mammillary bodies, stria medullaris, ventral nuclei of Gudden; interacts with basal ganglia (when see something scary); emotional nervous system; emotions, memory, behaviour

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23
Q

Amygdala

A

A small, almond-shaped cluster of nuclei located deep within the temporal lobe of the brain; Plays a role in memory, decision making, and processing emotional responses (fear, anxiety, anger, pleasure)

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24
Q

Why is it important that we have an emotional response and brain re-wiring when
experiencing something scary?

A

The emotional response and brain re-wiring gets the body ready to either face the threat or escape from it (fight or flight); This comes from the sympathetic nervous system

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25
Q

Sympathetic Nervous system

A

Sympathetic: Emergency response and energy mobilization; Prepares for stress and action (fight or flight);
Increases heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, and blood flow to the muscles; Slows down digestion;
Stronger than parasympathetic (uses hormone from adrenal medulla; sympathetic chain)
CNS soma cluster = nuclei;
Thoraco-lumbar nervous system;
Norepinephrine and epinephrine

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26
Q

Frontal lobe

A

Voluntary movements, voluntary thought, cognition, think, engage in reason/cause-effect, long-term memory

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27
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Taste (gustation), temperature, touch, pressure, vibration detection

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28
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Short-term memory, emotions, speech, smell (olfaction), auditory stimuli

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29
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Vision

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30
Q

Cerebellum

A

Balance, posture, muscle tone, coordination (spatial equilibrium)

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31
Q

Spinal cord

A

Reflexes, walking, urination, sex organ function

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32
Q

Primary motor cortex vs Primary somatic sensory cortex

A

Primary motor cortex: Anterior; controls voluntary muscle movements
Primary somatic sensory cortex: Posterior; receives and processes sensory information from the body

Central sulcus divides them

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33
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Located below the thalamus and above the brainstem; Located within the diencephalon; Helps to maintain homeostasis; Controls pituitary gland; Autonomic nervous system regulation; Regulates circadian rhythm; Satiety center

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34
Q

Thalamus

A

Located on top of the brainstem and below the cerebral cortex; Acts as a central relay station, processing and transmitting sensory and motor information between different regions of the brain, primarily to the cerebral cortex; Plays a role in sensory perception, motor control and the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness

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35
Q

Epithalamus

A

Located above the thalamus and below the midbrain; Contains the pineal gland

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36
Q

Pineal gland

A

Located in the epithalamus; Endocrine gland responsible for producing melatonin; Helps to regulate sleep-wake cycle (circadian rhythm)

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37
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid

A

Found in/around the brain and spinal cord, within the ventricles of the brain, and the subarachnoid space; “Cushions” the brain, provide nutrients, circulates hormones. and contributes to waste removal and nutrient distribution; Produced by ependymal cells

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38
Q

Meninges

A

Dura mater (most superficial), arachnoid mater, and pia mater (deepest layer); 3 protective layers of tissue that surround and cover the brain and spinal cord; Protects the CNS and provides a cushioning effect

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38
Q

White blood cells in cerebrospinal fluid could signify…

A

White blood cells in cerebrospinal fluid could signify meningitis

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39
Q

Meningitis

A

Inflammation of the meninges; Typically caused by viral or bacterial infections

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39
Q

Epidural block

A

A type of regional anesthesia that involves the injection of local anesthetic into the epidural space (area surrounding spinal cord and its protective membranes; space between the dura mater and the walls of the vertebral canal); Injected between L3 and L4; Goal is to numb or block pain in a specific area of the body while the person remains conscious

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40
Q

Epidural block pharmacology

A

Caines: Mepivacaine, ropivacaine, levobupivacaine, chloroprocaine
Opioids: Fentanyl, morphine, hydromorphone, oxycodone, sufentanil

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40
Q

How to deal with pain

A

1) Local pain blockers (anesthetics): “-caine” blocks VG Na+ so there is no depolarization and no signal at the source of pain (signal never sent to brain)
2) Systemic pain blockers: “-opiates/narcotics”; leads to pleasure/reward pathways; influences the production and release of endorphins (flat pEg)

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41
Q

SSRI

A

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor; Selective = Only in brain (Ex: Brain feels better); Takes long time to be effective (2-4 weeks); Elevates serotonin levels in only the brain, but does not trigger an immediate or intense feeling of euphoria or pleasure; Antidepressant; Example drugs: Zoloft (generic: sertraline), Prozac (fluoxetine), Lexapro (escitalopram)

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42
Q

SRI

A

Serotonin reuptake inhibitor; Works very fast and is short term; Illegal; Decreases natural serotonin production because it increases serotonin production all over the body; Leads to feedback inhibition; Body stops the production of serotonin; Elevates serotonin and dopamine levels in brain which plays into addiction centers in the brain (fast dopamine hit = brain happy because brain wants to be happy in an easy way); Illegal; Example drug: Methamphetamine

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43
Q

Proprioception

A

Located in muscles, tendons, joints, and the skin; The body’s ability to sense the position, movement, and orientation of its parts in space without relying on visual input; Muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, joint receptors; Helps to detect the position and movement of your body and limbs to maintain overall balance

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44
Q

Relationship between inner ear fluid and CN VIII

A

Vestibulocochlear nerve VIII; Semicircular canals of the ear have fluid that play a role in balance in detection of acceleration/deceleration; Proprioception works together with the vestibular system in the inner ear to help maintain balance and coordination

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45
Q

Cranial nerves I-XII

A

Olfactory nerve I
Optic nerve II
Oculomotor III
Trochlear IV
Trigeminal nerve V
Abducens nerve VI
Facial nerve VII
Vestibulocochlear nerve VIII
Glossopharyngeal nerve XI
Vagus nerve X
Spinal accessory nerve XI
Hypoglossal XII

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46
Q

Cranial nerve I

A

Olfactory nerve I; Sensory; Larger in vertebrates with a better sense of smell; Proprioception is a sensory function; Smell and taste are linked and are both chemoreceptors; Smell is linked to memory

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47
Q

Cranial nerve II

A

Optic nerve II; Sensory; Vision; Optic chiasm (part of the brain where optic nerves cross); Vision centers are in occipital lobe

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48
Q

Cranial nerve III

A

Oculomotor nerve III; Motor; Double vision, blurred vision, and drooping eyelids (ptosis); Superior, inferior, medial rectus, and inferior oblique; Proprioceptive; Parasympathetic to the sphincter of the pupil (constriction) and ciliary muscles (accommodation)

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49
Q

Cranial nerve IV

A

Trochlear nerve IV; Motor; Superior oblique; Proprioceptive; Some of the smallest motor units are found within the muscle of the eye; Lens mineralize (cataract); Double vision

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50
Q

Cranial nerve V

A

Trigeminal nerve V; Both sensory and motor; Mastication = chewing (mainly V3); 3 branches

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51
Q

Cranial nerve VI

A

Abducens nerve VI; Motor; Double vision; Lateral rectus

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52
Q

Cranial nerve VII

A

Facial nerve VII; Both sensory and motor; Facial expressions; Facial palsy

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53
Q

Cranial nerve VIII

A

Vestibulocochlear nerve VIII; Sensory; Semicircular canals of ear have fluid that play a role in balance and detection of acceleration/deceleration; Cochlea play a role in hearing

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54
Q

Cranial nerve IX

A

Glossopharyngeal nerve IX; Both sensory and motor; Parasympathetic increases salivary gland secretion; Motor to pharyngeal muscle; Proprioceptive to pharyngeal

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55
Q

Cranial nerve X

A

Vagus nerve X; Both sensory and motor; “To wander”; Vagus nerve goes all over the body; Only nerve to extend beyond head and neck to visceral organs in thorax and abdomen; Parasympathetic to SA node of the heart (heart rate goes down by half)

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56
Q

Cranial nerve XI

A

Spinal accessory nerve XI; Motor; Most posterior; Sternocleidomastoid; Trapezius

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57
Q

Cranial nerve XII

A

Hypoglossal nerve XII; Motor; “Under tongue”; Intrinsic tongue muscles are entirely within the tongue; Extrinsic tongue muscle attach the tongue to other structures

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58
Q

Cranial nerves associated with vision or double vision

A

Vision: Optic nerve II
Double vision: Oculomotor nerve III, Trochlear nerve IV, Abducens nerve VI

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59
Q

Why are there smaller motor units in the eye?

A

Smaller motor units create finer motions; Smallest motor units are used in eye muscles because they provide small movements and help with focusing sight

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60
Q

Relationship between “-caines” and CN V

A

Trigeminal Nerve V: Ophthalmic (V1), Maxillary branch (V2), Mandibular branch (V3)
“-caines” = local anesthesia: blocks voltage-gated sodium channels; No depolarization

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61
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

Relaxation, energy conservation, and recovery; Promotes relaxation and energy conservation (rest and digest);
Decreases heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure; Increased blood flow to digestive organs and enhances digestion;
Antagonistic effects on target organs and promotes calming and a return to “rest and digest” functions; Default but weaker system;
PNS soma = ganglia
Cranio-sacral nervous system; Enteric system
Acetylcholine

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62
Q

Both sympathetic and parasympathetic

A

Have pre and post ganglionic;
PNS: Acetylcholine = pre and post neurotransmitter
CNS: Acetylcholine = ONLY post ganglionic

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63
Q

Relationship between heart rate and CN X

A

Vagus nerve goes throughout the body; Parasympathetic to the SA node of the heart, causing heart rate to go down; SA would fire twice per second without “vagal tone”; Uses muscarinic receptor which dumps acetylcholine into SA node and Vagus nerve binds to; Results in hyperpolarization of SA node cells, making it more difficult for them to reach the threshold necessary for action potentials

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64
Q

Relationship between muscles and CN XI

A

Spinal accessory nerve XI connects to sternocleidomastoid and trapezius; Medical conditions that affect the CN XI will lead to difficulty elevating the scapula or rotating the neck

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65
Q

Graded potential vs action potential

A

Graded potential: Barrage of EPSPs; Determine if an action potential is generated; Na+, Cl-, K+; Summation; Usually occurs in dendrites and cell bodies; Ex: Non-myelinated multipolar neuron

Action potential:
Transmit signals over long distances; Na+, K+; No summation

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66
Q

Leak channel

A

Ion channel that is always open, allowing ions and substances to pass through; Aka passive channels or non-gated channels; Ex: Slow leak Na+ channel action potential in SA node (from RMP to threshold); Slow leak K+ channel maintains RMP in all action potentials

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67
Q

Carrier

A

Membrane protein that moves molecules across a cell membrane

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68
Q

Pump

A

Generate a membrane potential by creating an electrochemical gradient across the membrane (against the electrochemical concentration gradient); Ex: Na+/K+ ATPase pump maintains RMP in all action potentials; Ca+ ATPase pumps Ca+ out of somatic motor neuron when action potential is not happening

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69
Q

Ligand-gated receptor/channel

A

Protein embedded in a cell membrane that acts as a gate, allowing specific ions to pass through only when a signaling molecule (called a ligand) binds to it; Opening the channel by triggering a conformational change in the receptor protein; Ex: Nicotinic receptors found in neuromuscular junctions that turn into channels when Acetylcholine from neurons bind to it

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70
Q

Voltage gated channel

A

Transmembrane protein that opens and closes in response to changes in a cell’s electrical potential; Ex: VG Na+ opens and closes during depolarization (not SA node); VG K+ opens during beginning of plateau phase and opens and closes during repolarization; VG Ca+ opens and closes during depolarization of SA node and plateau phase

71
Q

Pre-ganglionic

A

Neurons that originate in the central nervous system have its fibers (axons of neurons) extend and travel to a ganglion, where they synapse with post-ganglionic neuron

72
Q

Post-ganglionic

A

Neurons that are located in a ganglion and have its fibers (axons of neurons) extend out to the target organ

73
Q

Sympathetic fibers

A

Pre-ganglionic: Short; Releases acetylcholine
Post-ganglionic: Long; releases norepinephrine
Stronger due to release of Ach on adrenal medulla, which releases norepinephrine; Thoracic and lumbar

74
Q

Parasympathetic fibers

A

Pre-ganglionic: Long; Releases acetylcholine
Post-ganglionic: Short; Releases acetylcholine
Weaker;
Sacrum and coccyx

75
Q

APCV

A

Action potential conductance velocity; Refers to the speed at which an action potential travels along an axon from one end to another, ultimately reaching the target cells

75
Q

What factors increase APCV

A

Larger axon diameter; Myelination; Higher temperatures; More efficient ion channel activation and faster ion movement

75
Q

Relationship between APCV and myelination

A

Myelinated sheaths increase APCV; Length doesn’t matter because myelination causes saltatory conduction; However, diameter of axons matter

75
Q

Release of neurotransmitters

A

Neurotransmitters are made in the soma of neurons; Dynein and kinesin are rotary proteins that move the vesicles from the soma to the pre-synaptic membrane; Action potential travel down axon to the pre-synaptic terminal, causing a depolarization of the membrane; Depolarization causes opening of VG Ca+ channels, allowing Ca+ in; Ca+ forces the vesicles to fuse with the synaptic terminal, further releasing acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft through exocytosis

76
Q

Fate of neurotransmitters

A

1) Can be enzymatically degraded; Ex: Acetylcholine: Can be inhibited by sarin nerve gas, ach levels go way up causing intense skeletal muscle contractions
2) Part or all of the neurotransmitter can be taken up by reuptake proteins on the presynaptic side; Ex: FE-SSRI: Serotonin levels go up in the brain slowly and only in the brain
3) Sometimes neurotransmitters escape from the synapse and are usually scavenged by astrocytes

77
Q

Summation

A

Graded potentials between resting and threshold; Made up of EPSPs (excitatory postsynaptic potentials) and IPSPs (inhibitory postsynaptic potentials) until they reach threshold

78
Q

Threshold

A

The level of membrane depolarization that must be reached for an action potential to be initiated; EPSP + IPSP = T

79
Q

CNS glial cells

A

Astrocytes
Microglia
Oligodendrocytes
Ependymal cells

80
Q

PNS glial cells

A

Schwann cells
Satellite cells

81
Q

CNS

A

Central nervous system; Information processing, motor control, sensory processing, cognition and thought, emotional and behavioral regulation, autonomic functions, and homeostasis; Includes brain and spinal cord

82
Q

PNS

A

Peripheral nervous system; Transmits information to and from the CNS and regulates movement and the internal environment; Afferent neurons transmits information to the CNS and efferent neurons transmit information away from CNS; Somatic and autonomic PNS; 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 nerves of cranial nerves

83
Q

Autonomic vs Somatic PNS

A

Autonomic: Regulates smooth and cardiac muscles; Typically involuntary
Somatic: Carries signals to skeletal muscles; Voluntary

84
Q

Aquaporin

A

Channel protein that transports water

85
Q

Relationship between aquaporin and ADH

A

Dehydration causes an influx of aquaporins and ADH (vasopressin), which leads to a decrease in urine; Allows kidneys to absorb more water resulting in less waste/urine from exiting the kidneys

86
Q

Peptide hormone

A

Binds to cell surface receptors (2nd messenger); Fast effects; Rough ER to Golgi apparatus to neurotransmitter vesicles; Vesicles release when needed; Hydrophilic; Ex: Epinephrine

87
Q

Steroid hormone

A

Binds to intracytoplasmic receptors, which affects transcription (genes “on/off”); Slow effects; Smooth ER makes and releases when needed; Hydrophobic; Ex: Testosterone

88
Q

Anterior pituitary hormones

A

All made and released within the anterior pituitary; Hypothalamic hypophyseal portal system;
FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin, Endorphins, GH

89
Q

Posterior pituitary hormones

A

Made by hypothalamus and released within the posterior pituitary; Oxytocin and ADH (vasopressin)

90
Q

GH

A

Growth hormone from anterior pituitary makes its way down the liver and upregulates Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 (IGF1); Stimulated systemic body growth; Growth promoting effects on almost cells of the body

91
Q

RN: Growth promoting effects on almost cells of the body

A

Skeletal muscle, cartilage, bone, liver, kidney, nerve, skin, hematopoietic cells, lung, DNA synthesis

92
Q

Baroreceptors

A

Detects changes in pressure; Found in aortic arch and carotid sinuses; Blood pressure is closely monitored by baroreceptors, and they communicate with multiple brain centers to regulate blood pressure

93
Q

Hypothalamic hypophyseal portal system

A

Two capillary beds that plays a role in the communication between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland; Allows for direct transport of hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary; Hormones transported are hormones that regulate (release or inhibit) the hormones created in the anterior pituitary

94
Q

Neuroendocrine neurons

A

Can both transmit electrical impulses and release hormones directly into the bloodstream; Release hormones into bloodstream in response to electrical signals; Acts as bridge cells that convert neural signals into hormonal signals; Located in areas of the brain that regulate homeostasis (hypothalamus, pineal gland, posterior pituitary)

95
Q

Hormones associated with blood sugar

A

Blood sugar up: Glucagon, epinephrine, cortisol, growth hormone
Blood sugar down: Insulin

96
Q

Hyperglycemia vs hypoglycemia

A

Hyperglycemia: High blood sugar
Hypoglycemia: Low blood sugar

97
Q

Type I Diabetes vs Type II Diabetes

A

Type I: Congenital (born with it); Makes no insulin at all; Beta cells (that produce insulin) in pancreas are attacked by immune system
Type II: Mainly affects those in 40s, 50s, and 60s; Weight is high and activity is down; Insulin resistance

98
Q

What happens when blood sugar is too high for too long

A

Crystallization: If untreated, sugars will crystalize and block blood flow;
Glycosylation: If untreated, it can stiffen blood vessels and block blood flow;
Extremities: Blockage of blood flow in extremities can lead to amputation of limbs

99
Q

Pre-capillary sphincters

A

Smooth muscles structures that regulate blood flow into capillary beds; Role in hemodynamics: When they constrict, blood flow into capillaries decreases, shunting blood to other areas or larger vessels; When they relax, blood flows freely into capillary beds, enhancing tissue perfusion; Adrenergic influence

100
Q

Adrenergic influence

A

Constriction of pre-capillary sphincters are primarily mediated by α-adrenergic receptors

101
Q

Adrenergic tone

A

Refers to the baseline level of sympathetic nervous system activity, which heavily influences vascular tone;
The balance between vasoconstriction (α1-adrenergic) and vasodilation (β2-adrenergic) receptors determines blood vessel diameter

102
Q

Epinephrine based on adrenergic receptor affinities

A

Acts on both α-adrenergic and β-adrenergic receptors; At low concentrations, it primarily stimulates β2 receptors, causing vasodilation (especially in skeletal muscle); At high concentrations, it binds more strongly to α1 receptors, leading to vasoconstriction; Increases systolic BP (β1 receptors in the heart increase cardiac output); May decrease diastolic BP (β2-mediated vasodilation)

103
Q

Catecholamine

A

A group of neurotransmitters and hormones that are essential in regulating several physiological processes; Includes norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine

104
Q

Adrenergic receptors

A

Proteins on cell membranes that respond to norepinephrine and epinephrine

105
Q

Adrenergic alpha receptors

A

α1 receptors are mostly involved in vasoconstriction, increased blood pressure, and contraction of smooth muscles;
α2 receptors are mostly inhibitory, reducing the release of norepinephrine in a negative feedback mechanism, and they are involved in reducing sympathetic nervous system activity

106
Q

Adrenergic beta receptors

A

β1 receptors are primarily located in the heart, where their activation increases heart rate, force of contraction, and conduction velocity in the heart;
β2 receptors are found in smooth muscle; Activation of β2 receptors causes vasodilation, bronchodilation, and muscle relaxation in various organs;
β3 receptors are involved in lipolysis (breakdown of fat) and thermogenesis (heat production) in adipose tissue

107
Q

Nonrepinephrine based on adrenergic receptor affinities

A

Prefers α1 receptors (vasoconstriction) and β1 receptors (cardiac stimulation) but has weak effects on β2 receptors;
Effect on Blood Pressure:
Increases both systolic and diastolic BP due to widespread vasoconstriction

108
Q

Relationship between cortisol and immune system function

A

Long time periods of stress leads to cortisol levels to increase and white blood cells to decrease causing immune system function to decrease and the ability to get sick to increase

109
Q

Broken bones

A

Transverse: Perpendicular to the medullary cavity;
Linear: Parallel to the medullary cavity;
Oblique, nondisplaced: Broken at an angle;
Oblique, displaced: Broken at an angle all the way through;
Spiral: Corkscrew bone;
Greenstick: Bone bends before it breaks;
Comminuted: Bone breaks into fragments;
Compound: Bone breaks through skin

110
Q

Palsy vs Neuralgia

A

Palsy: Paralysis
Neuralgia: Pain that is distributed to one or more nerves; Pain occurs along the path of a nerve

111
Q

5 Epidermis layers

A

1) Stratum corneum (superficial)
2) Stratum lucidum
3) Stratum granulosum
4) Stratum spinosum
5) Stratum basale (deep; Contains melanocytes)

112
Q

5 Regions of the bone growth plate

A

1) Cartilage (chondroblasts) (towards epiphysis or end of bone)
2) Proliferation (Cell number increases)
3) Hypertrophy (cell size increases)
4) Calcification (Cell with hydroxyapatite will apoptose, leading to cell being gone but hydroxyapatite stays)
5) Ossification (new diaphysis) (towards diaphysis or shaft of bone)

113
Q

Outer layers of brain cortex in mammals

A

Process sensory input; Rapid gamma waves often originate in outer layers; Has higher frequency brain waves

114
Q

Inner layers of brain cortex in mammals

A

Controls what the brain does with resulting information gathered by outer layers; Slower alpha and beta waves arise from deeper layers; Has lower frequency brain waves

115
Q

High vs low frequency brain waves

A

High frequency: Encode sensory information; If higher frequencies dominate, this can cause attention problems or sensory overload;
Low frequency: Controls signals; If lower frequencies dominate, this can cause psychosis (like schizophrenia) by reducing information from the outside world and increasing the brains reliance on internally generated signals

116
Q

Bone remodeling hormones

A

1) Calcitonin (thyroid c cells): Inhibits osteoclast activity
2) Parathyroid hormone (PTH): Activates osteoclasts to release calcium into the blood
3) Calcitriol: Activated vitamin D5; Promotes reabsorption of calcium
4) Estrogen: Inhibits apoptosis of osteoblast, so number of osteoblast increases

117
Q

Hemodynamic formulas

A

Cardiac output = Stroke Volume x Heart Rate
C.O. = S.V x H.R.

Change in Pressure = Flow in System x Resistance
ΔP = Q (or C.O.) x R

Mean Arterial Pressure = Diastolic Blood Pressure + 1/3 x (Systolic Blood Pressure - Diastolic Blood Pressure)
MAP = D + ((S-D)/3)

118
Q

Systolic vs. Diastolic in Blood Pressure

A

Systolic blood pressure is the top number
Diastolic blood pressure is the bottom number
Ex: 120 (Systolic)/80 (Diastolic)
Pressure units = mmHg

119
Q

PG I2

A

Wound stage 2;
Causes vasodilation for increased blood flow/healing;
Demotes platelet aggregation

120
Q

PG D2

A

Pain, sleep/wake cycles, pyretic (fever inducing);
Mediates inflammation

121
Q

PG E2

A

Main inflammation prostaglandin;
Causes pain, redness, swelling, inflammation

122
Q

PG F2 alpha

A

Corpus luteum (CL) regression, skeletal muscle;
End of menstrual
Estrogen and oxytocin stimulate the release of oxytocin, which aids in the stimulation of uterine contraction

123
Q

PG H2

A

Wound stage 1;
Thromboxane (substance produced by platelets);
Vasoconstriction and increased clotting/platelet aggregation;
Don’t want to endure massive blood loss

124
Q

Skeletal muscle cell/neuron AP graph

A

Na+ voltage-gated channel slowly opens until threshold; At threshold it opens all the way and Na+ ions enter cell during depolarization; Na+ closes at 35mvols, and K+ channel opens; K+ leave the cell during repolarization; When cell becomes more negative than RMP, hyperpolarization occurs; During hyperpolarization, K+ channels close; Another action potential cannot occur unless in hyperpolarization or RMP is reached; AP completely stops once the cell hits RMP; Na+/K+ ATPase pump and slow “leak” K+ channel work during RMP and AP to maintain RMP

125
Q

Skeletal muscle cell/neuron AP graph (with summation)

A

During EPSP (towards threshold), Na+ and/or Ca+ goes into the cell; During IPSP (away from threshold), Cl- goes into the cell; Causes waves until the action potential is strong enough to reach threshold

126
Q

Cardiac muscle cell AP graph

A

Na+ voltage-gated channel opens when depolarization occurs; Closes at peak; Simultaneously, VG K+ and VG Ca++ opens as VG Na+ channel closes; Causes plateau phase where two VG channels cancel each other out; VG Ca++ channel closes at beginning of repolarization; K+ continues leaving cell from VG K+ channel until RMP is reached;
Na+/K+ ATPase pump and slow “leak” K+ channel work during RMP and AP to maintain RMP

127
Q

“Pacemaker” of heart (SA Node) AP graph

A

Before threshold is reached, slow leak Na+ channel lets Na+ into cell; When threshold is reached, VG Ca++ channel opens and depolarization occurs; Ca++ goes into cell until peak; During repolarization, VG K+ channel opens and lets K+ out until RMP is achieved; Na+/K+ ATPase pump and slow “leak” K+ channel work during RMP and AP to maintain RMP

128
Q

Smooth muscle AP graph (GI tract and enteric nervous system)

A

Roll instead of spikes because very few fast VG Na+ channels within smooth muscle; Slow VG Na+ channel opens during depolarization letting Na+ into the cell; At peak, slow VG Na+ channel closes and VG K+ channel opens; During repolarization, K+ exits the cell; Spike potentials can occur on the top of the rolls, so the muscle can stay contracted for long periods of time; Na+/K+ ATPase pump and slow “leak” K+ channel work during RMP and AP to maintain RMP

129
Q

Pancreas functions

A

Endocrine: Secretes hormones into blood; Islets of Langerhans;
Exocrine: Secretes into GI tract, usually enzymes;
Paracrine: Affects tissues nearby;
Autocrine: Self affecting

130
Q

Islets of Langerhans

A

Clusters of specialized cells found within the pancreas that contribute to endocrine function;
Alpha cells produce glucagon (elevates blood sugar); Beta cells produce insulin (lowers blood sugar); Delta cells produce somatostatin (GI inhibitor)

131
Q

Interferons

A

Type of cytokine (cell movement); 1st line of defense against viruses; Amplifies immune defense system against viruses; Produced by macrophages (which came from monocytes), T-cells (lymphocytes), fibroblasts, and virus-infected cells;

132
Q

Guillain-Barre Syndrome

A

A fast/sudden and progressive autoimmune disorder that affects the nervous system, especially the PNS; Muscle weakness that can lead to paralysis; Unsure of cause, but usually a series of antecedent infections occurs prior of onset (viruses (mono), respiratory infections, bacterial infections)

133
Q

Relationship between muscle soreness, testosterone, and satellite stem cell recruitment

A

Microtears (24-48 hours) occur; Stem cell recruitment is true muscle building because adding nuclei (more genes for actin and myosin; transcription and translation); Testosterone goes up and turns genes on to promote repair; Genetics play a role

134
Q

Short-term memory vs long-term memory

A

Short term memory is stored within the temporal lobe; Long term memory is stored within the frontal lobe/prefrontal cortex

135
Q

GLUT-4

A

Regulates glucose levels by transporting glucose into muscle and fat cells; GLUT-4 in cell membrane leads to blood sugar decreasing

136
Q

Cranial nerve with the most posterior origin

A

Spinal Accessory Nerve XI

137
Q

Why are cancers so deadly?

A

1) Steals nutrients from healthy cells
2) A cell changing in form causes it to change in function
3) Metastasize (non-muscle reference to actin): Cancer can move into blood vessels leading to blood vessels weakening causing internal bleeding and hemorrhaging (blood escaping vessels into surrounding organs and tissues)

138
Q

A, B, C, D, E of moles

A

Asymmetrical; Border; Color; Diameter; Evolution

139
Q

Motor unit size

A

Dependent on how many muscle fibers are innervated to a neuron; Size affects how fine the movements are for a group of muscle fibers; Smaller motor units have less muscle fibers innervated (down to one); Larger motor units have many more muscle fibers innervated (up to thousands)

140
Q

Golgi tendon organ

A

Proprioceptors that are located in the tendon adjacent to the myotendinous junction; Detects stress

141
Q

Cervical enlargement

A

Widening in cervical region of spinal cord due to increased number of nerve cells needed to innervate the upper limbs

142
Q

Conus medullaris

A

Located at beginning of lumbar vertebrae and marks end of spinal cord proper; Below this point, spinal cord transitions into cauda equina

143
Q

Cauda equina

A

A bundle of nerve roots that originate from the conus medullaris and descend within the vertebral canal; These nerve roots innervate the lower limbs, pelvic organs, and perineal area; Consists of lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal nerve roots

144
Q

Filum terminale

A

A thread-like structure of connective tissue that extends from the tip of the conus medullaris and attaches to the coccyx; Serves to anchor the spinal cord in place within the vertebral canal and stabilize the spinal cords position

145
Q

Phrenic nerve

A

Innervates diaphragm for respiration; Spinal nerve that originates from the cervical spinal cord

146
Q

Gray matter vs white matter

A

Gray matter consists of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons; White matter consists of bundles of myelinated axons; Gray matter is superficial (closer to skin) to white matter in the brain; White matter is superficial (closer to skin) to gray matter in the spinal cord

147
Q

Optic chasm

A

Part of brain where optic nerves cross; Found in all vertebrates; Located at the bottom of the brain immediately inferior to the hypothalamus

148
Q

Ventricles of brain

A

Fluid-filled cavities responsible for producing and circulating cerebrospinal fluid; 4 ventricles: 2 Lateral (1 in each hemisphere of brain), third ventricle (narrow cavity in midline of brain), fourth ventricle (between brainstem and cerebellum), and cerebral aqueduct (connects third and fourth ventricle)

149
Q

5 senses found in which brain lobes?

A

Parietal: Taste and touch
Temporal: Hearing and smell
Occipital: Vision

150
Q

Speech formation and speech comprehension found where?

A

Broca’s area (left brain): Speech formation/execution
Wernicke’s area (right brain): Speech/language comprehension and interpretation

151
Q

Afferent vs efferent neurons

A

Afferent: Into spinal cord; Sensory; Bipolar neuron; Takes information to CNS
Efferent: Away from spinal cord; Motor; Affects skeletal muscles; Takes information given from CNS and responds to stimuli

152
Q

Cranial nerve V branches

A

Trigeminal nerve V has 3 branches;
Ophthalmic branch (V1): Sensory input like touch, pain, and temperature from these regions; Eye, forehead and scalp, nose, and upper eyelid
Maxillary branch (V2): Sensory input from the midface and upper oral structures (upper jaw and teeth, cheeks, nose, palate, sinuses)
Mandibular branch
(V3): Sensory input from lower face and motor control of chewing muscles; Masseter, temporalis, medial and lateral pterygoids

153
Q

Intrinsic vs extrinsic muscles

A

Intrinsic: Within the tongue
Extrinsic: Tongue muscles that attach the tongue to other structures

154
Q

Dorsal root ganglia

A

Located along the dorsal roots of spinal nerves; Transmits sensory signals from the body to the CNS

155
Q

Ganglia

A

A cluster of neuronal cell bodies located outside the CNS in the PNS

156
Q

Relationship between snake bites and necrosis

A

Snake bites can lead to necrosis (tissue death); Venom, toxins, or poison keeps VG Ca++ channels open leading to progressive skeletal muscle weakness and potentially paralysis

157
Q

Venoms, toxins, and poisons

A

Venom, toxins, or poison keeps VG Ca++ channels open (Ach is released into synaptic cleft causing constant muscle contraction) leading to progressive skeletal muscle weakness and potentially paralysis

158
Q

Gap junctions

A

Cell-to-cell junction that allows for the direct communication between adjacent cells; Physical synapses

159
Q

Neural circuits and pathways

A

Convergent neuronal circuits: Input from many sources/nerves to a single source;
Divergent neuronal circuits: Input to many sources/nerves originating from a single source;
Reverberating neuronal circuit: Sends signals in a loop between neurons; Repetitive;
Discharge neuronal circuit: Most complicated; Quick, temporary neuronal firing in response to a stimulus; Rapid responses to environmental stimuli; Different cognitive elements of brain; cause/effect, reasoning, answering questions, solving problems

160
Q

What happens if valves give out?

A

Back flow can occur leading to reduced cardiac output

161
Q

Absolute vs relative refactory periods

A

Absolute refactory periods: No new APs can be generated; Longer absolute refactory periods in cardiac muscle, so cardiac muscle cannot summate twitches; VG Na+ gates are resetting

Relative refactory periods: A new AP can be generated, but there would need to be a stronger stimulus to get back to threshold; Occurs during hyperpolarization

162
Q

Plateau phase

A

Occurs during cardiac muscle AP; Ca++ goes into cell as K+ exits the cell, canceling each other out; Extends absolute refactory period of cardiac muscle to prohibit summation of twitches; Prevents cardiac tetany; Promotes ventricular emptying because of longer, sustained contraction of the heart

163
Q

Muscular dystrophy

A

Refers to a groups of more than 30 genetic disease that cause progressive weakness and degeneration of skeletal muscles used during voluntary movement; All forms worsen as muscles progressively degenerate and weaken; Most prominently affects the integrity of muscle fibers

164
Q

Myopathy

A

Muscular disease; Disease of muscle where the muscle fibers do not function properly resulting in muscle weakness; Primary defect is in muscles as opposed to nerves

165
Q

Neuropathy

A

Nervous/nerve disease; Damage or dysfunction of the peripheral nerves

166
Q

Huntington’s disease

A

Autosomal dominant; Short arm of chromosome #4; “Huntingtin” gene; Too many CAG repeats which causes issue with transcription of genes, issue with cell to cell communication, and issue with cell signaling; Disease causes cognitive and behavioral issues; Not visible until after the age of 30, which can lead to it having already been passed on

167
Q

Rheumatoid arthritis

A

Long-term autoimmune disorder that affects joints; Self-attacking antibodies or immunoglobin; Dendritic cells sound alarm against own synovial tissues; Typically in wrist and hands

168
Q

Osteoarthritis

A

Impingement (bone on bone); Thinning of hyaline cartilage; Formation of osteophytes; Can lead to bone spurs on heel

169
Q

Gout arthritis

A

A type of inflammatory arthritis; Deposition of needle-like crystals of uric acid into joints; Factors include diet, genetics, and under excretion of uric acid by the kidney

170
Q

Antihistamine

A

Swelling and inflammation of smooth muscle of respiratory tree; Inhaler blocks H1 and inhibits mast cells (Histamine decreases)

171
Q

Muscle relaxants

A

Helps with tension and pain in skeletal muscle; Nicotinic AcR antagonists; GABA increases in brain leading to inhibition of cerebral pathways

172
Q

Processing centers of the brain

A

Thalamus: Receives sensory information and sends it to regions of cerebral cortex; Handles all senses except smell;
Cerebral cortex: Involved in higher-order processing, including thinking, memory, and voluntary movements;
Brainstem: Responsible for basic, life-sustaining functions, such as breathing, heartbeat, and digestion;
Cerebellum: Involved in motor control and learning, coordination of voluntary movements, and maintaining balance and posture;
Limbic system: Responsible for emotion processing, memory, and behavior;
Hypothalamus: Maintains homeostasis within the body

173
Q

Brain lobes

A

4 lobes make up the cerebrum:
1) Frontal lobe: Reasoning, motor control, speech production, personality and social behavior, cognitive function
2) Parietal lobe: Processes sensory information, spatial awareness, sensory integration
3) Temporal lobe: Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory formation, emotional responses
4) Occipital lobe: Visual processing and recognition

174
Q

Brain segments

A

Brain is separated into 3 segments:
1) Forebrain (Prosencephalon): Cerebrum and diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus)
2) Midbrain (Mesencephalon): Reticular activating centers
3) Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon): Brainstem (minus the midbrain) and cerebellum

Bio 319 (A&P) (10 decks)

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