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PSYC1101 > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

prenatal period

A

stage of development between conception and birth

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2
Q

what are the stages of prenatal development?

A
  1. germinal
  2. embryonic
  3. fetal stages
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3
Q
  1. Germinal Stage
A
  • approx. 2 weeks
  • conception to implantation
  • zygote and mitosis (cell division)
  • ends when blastocyst implants on the uterine wall
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4
Q

zygote

A

a single-celled fertilized egg

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5
Q

What are the 3 crucial structures needed after implantation

A
  1. Aminotic sac w/ amniotic fluid
  2. Placenta
  3. Umbilical Cord
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6
Q

Amniotic sac filled w/ amniotic fluid

A
  • regulates the exchange of fluids
  • cushions against environmental changes
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7
Q

Placenta

A
  • passes oxygen and nutrients from parent to embryo
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8
Q

blastocyst

A

a bundle of cells

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9
Q

teratogens

A

(chemicals, viruses) that can cause harm to prenatal organisms

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10
Q

Umbilical cord

A

tube w/ blood vessels that carry blood between embryo/fetus and placenta

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11
Q
  1. Embryonic stage
A
  • weeks 3-8
  • called an embryo
  • all major organ systems are formed
  • sexual differentiation begins
  • miscarriages are most common in this stage
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12
Q
  1. Fetal stage
A
  • from month 2 to birth
  • called a fetus
  • rapid growth occurs
  • organ systems mature
  • development of senses + brain
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13
Q

case study

A

collection of information from one individual in order to better understand physical and psychological changes over the lifespan

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14
Q

survey

A

researcher asks individuals to self-report important information about their thoughts, experiences, and beliefs

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15
Q

naturalistic observation

A

observing behavior in its natural context

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16
Q

experiment

A

involves manipulating variables to identify cause-and-effect relationships between them

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17
Q

developmental norms

A

what average age should children hit a developmental milestone?

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18
Q

biological milestones - are they universal?

A

ex. walking, talking, and puberty
+++ ARE universal +++

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19
Q

social milestones - are they universal?

A

ex. age when children begin school
+++ NOT universal +++

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20
Q

Theory of continuous development

A

views development as a cumulative process, gradually building on and improving existing skills

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21
Q

Theory of discontinuous development

A

view development as occurring in “unique” stages - where major changes occur that make someone behave differently than before

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22
Q

what two things shape who we become/ mainly children?

A

nature (biological, genetics) AND nurture (environment, culture)

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23
Q

what effects the achievement gap?

A

socioeconomic status

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24
Q

Psychosexual theory of development

A

Freud’s theory states that children’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on different areas of the body (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital)

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25
Q

Psychosocial theory of development

A

Erik Erikson’s theory that development is social in nature and not sexual

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26
Q

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

A
  • Infancy (0-1): trust vs. mistrust (basic needs)
  • early childhood (1-3): autonomy vs. shame (independence)
  • play age (3-6 years): initiative vs. guilt (unsuccess = guilt)
  • school age (7-11): industry vs. inferiority (self-confidence)
  • adolescence (12-18): identity vs. confusion
  • early adulthood (19-29): intimacy vs. isolation
  • middle age (30-64): generativity vs. stagnation (contribute to society and family)
  • old age (65+): integrity vs. despair (makes sense of life)
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27
Q

Cognitive theory of development

A

Jean Piaget’s theory focuses on how thinking and reasoning change as we develop

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28
Q

Sociocultural theory of devleopment

A

Lev Vygotsky’s theory states that social interaction is a crucial aspect of cognitive development

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29
Q

Physical development is rapid over the first ___ years of life, and then slows down

A

first 5 YEARS

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30
Q

Temperament (building blocks of personality)

A

a person’s innate characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

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31
Q

What are the 3 categories of babies w/ descriptions?

A
  1. easy babies: easy to take care of and not emotionally reactive/calm down easily
  2. slow to warm up babies: negative reactions to change, small intensity of reaction (not a long time)
  3. difficult babies: incredibly intense reactions that are difficult to calm
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32
Q

Harlow’s Monkeys

A

monkey got more comfort from cloth monkey as opposed to wire monkey w/ bottle (more like their caregiver)

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33
Q

What are Ainsworth’s Quality of attachment?

A
  1. secure attachment
  2. anxious/ambivalent attachment
  3. avoidant attachement
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34
Q

secure attachment

A
  • a strong, healthy emotional bond
  • most infants
  • eager for comfort when caregiver leaves and returns
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35
Q

anxious/ ambivalent/ resistant attachment

A
  • anxious, does not trust a caregiver
  • go for comfort when caregiver returns but are frustrated
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36
Q

avoidant attachment

A
  • bond lacks
  • when caregiver returns, they dont care
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37
Q

Adolescence

A

socially constructed time between child and adult

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38
Q

what occurs during physical development in adolescence?

A
  • puberty: sexual maturation
    (girls: 10-15, boys: 11-16)
    BOYS: menarche (first ejaculation)
    GIRLS: first menstrual period
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39
Q

What occurs during the coginitive development of adolescents?

A
  • better at metacognition (thinking about thinking)
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40
Q

Marcia’s Identity Statuses

A

Crisis (active exploration) vs. No crisis (no active exploration)

AND

Committed (chosen an identity) vs. Not committed (haven’t chosen an identity)

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41
Q

Identity Achievement

A

have explored and have chosen an identity

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42
Q

Identity Foreclosure

A

you’ve chosen an identity and have never explored

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43
Q

Identity Moratorium

A

actively exploring identity and haven’t chosen

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44
Q

Identity Diffusion

A

haven’t explored an identity and haven’t chosen one

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45
Q

Emerging adulthood

A

new stage encompasses time period from 18 to complete independence

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46
Q

What physical changes occur during adulthood?

A
  • the peak of physical development occurs in early adulthood and a decline starts in the 30s-40s
  • sensory decline in late adulthood
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47
Q

What are the cognitive changes that occur during adulthood?

A
  • ability to stay steady and intelligent increases
  • speed of cognitive processing declines in late adulthood
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48
Q

Personality

A

an individual’s unique collection of consistent behavioral traits

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49
Q

What are the two important parts of personality?

A
  1. Unique: differences between people
  2. Consistent: describing people’s similarities from one situation to the next
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50
Q

Personality trait

A

relatively stable and enduring tendency to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations

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51
Q

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

A

the idea that human behavior is influenced by unconscious drives, particularly sexuality and aggression

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52
Q

What are the three systems interacting in our mind, according to Freud?

A

Id, Superego, Ego

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53
Q

Id

A

primitive urges, present from birth
“I want to do that now”

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54
Q

Superego

A

develops as a child interacts with others, learning whats socially right or wrong
“Its not right to do that”

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55
Q

Ego

A
  • the rational voice, compromising between Id and Superego
    “Maybe we can compromise”
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56
Q

Neurosis

A

tendency to experience negative emotions

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57
Q

What are the different Freud’s defense mechanisms (8)?

A
  1. Denial
  2. Displacement
  3. Projection
  4. Rationalization
  5. Reaction Formation
  6. Regression
  7. Repression
  8. Sublimation
58
Q

Denial

A

refusing to accept real events because they are unpleasant

59
Q

Displacement

A

redirecting emotions from the original source to a safer target

60
Q

Projection

A

attributing your own unacceptable feelings or thoughts to someone else

61
Q

Rationalization

A

creating logical reasons to justify behavior that might be socially/morally unacceptable

62
Q

Reaction Formation

A

acting the opposite of what you really think/feel, to hide your true feelings

63
Q

Regression

A

reverting to behaviors/habits from an earlier stage of development , often to reduce anxiety

64
Q

Repression

A

pushing uncomfortable thoughts or memories out of conscious awareness

65
Q

Sublimation

A

redirecting negative impulses or feelings into more acceptable ones

66
Q

What are the stages of Freud’s psychosexual development theory?

A
  1. Oral
  2. Anal
  3. Phallic
  4. Latency
  5. Genital
67
Q
  1. Oral (Mouth)
A
  • 0 to 1 year
  • pleasure is focused on the mouth
    (eating and breast milk)
    adults who smoke/drink/overeat are fixated in the oral stage
68
Q
  1. Anal (Anus)
A
  • 1 to 3 years
  • pleasure is experienced in the bowel and bladder moments (toilet training)
  • prone to emotional outbursts and to be messy
  • mastering self-control
69
Q
  1. Phallic (Genitals)
A
  • 3 to 6 years
  • child develops feelings for the opposite-sex parent
70
Q
  1. Latency Period (None)
A
  • 6 to 12 years
  • hiatus until puberty
  • gender role identity is established
  • sexual feelings are dormant
71
Q
  1. Genital stage (genital)
A
  • 12 + (puberty onward)
  • forming healthy relationships with someone of the opposite sex
72
Q

5 factor model (McCrae and Costa)

A

all personality traits are derived from 5 basic traits (these are a spectrum):
1. openness to experience
2. conscientiousness
3. extroversion
4. agreeableness
5.neuroticism

73
Q
  1. Openness to expirence
A

curious, imaginative, flexible thinking, accepting

74
Q
  1. Conscientiousness
A

disciplined, responsible, dependable

75
Q
  1. Extroversion
A

outgoing, assertive, friendly, sociable

76
Q
  1. Agreeableness
A

sympathetic, trusting, cooperative

77
Q
  1. Neuroticism
A

nervous and emotionally unstable, anxious, hostile, insecure

78
Q

Projective Tests (personality test) + an example

A

ask people to respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that are supposed to reveal their inner needs, feelings, and traits

ex. Rorschach inkblot test = low levels of reliability and validitiy

79
Q

What are the issues with projective tests?

A
  • extremely subjective
  • people can lie or fake traits
80
Q

Thematic Apperception Test + cons

A

seeks to determine inner feelings/traits based on stories made up about a photo
- better reliability and validity
- supports Freud’s unconscious theory

81
Q

Validity

A

accuracy - “faking” / lying

82
Q

Reliability

A

consistency

83
Q

The Person-Situation Debate

A

Mischel: personality traits lacked cross-sectional consistency, and behavior changes w/ situation.

Personality theorists: trait consistency varies by person but traits are more consistent when situational pressure is low.

84
Q

Mischel’s Marshmallow Test (purpose, findings, influencing factors, overall)

A

Purpose: will kids delay gratification for a bigger reward

Findings:
- 2/3 kids ate the marshmallow
- kids who delayed gratification at age 4, grew to be more socially, educationally, and financially competent

Influencing factors affected kids:
Ex. kids waited longer just picturing the marshmallow, not having it in their room

Overall: behavior is determined by situational factors and internal traits

85
Q

Emotion

A

an immediate, specific (positive or negative) response to environmental events/internal thoughts (stimuli)

86
Q

Primary emotions

A

innate and universal (all humans experience it)
ex. anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, surprise, and contempt

87
Q

Secondary emotions

A

blend primary emotions, complex learned
ex. pride, jealousy, shame, remorse, and grief

88
Q

Valence

A

how pleasant or unpleasant a feeling is (positive valence vs. negative valence)

89
Q

Arousal level

A

how intense or physiologically arousing a feeling is (high vs. low)

90
Q

What 3 parts do an emotion consist of?

A
  1. Physiological arousal: physical change in the body
  2. Behavioral response: what you actually do
  3. Cognitive subjective experience: what we label it in our brains
91
Q

James-Lange Theory (1884)

A

physiological arousal causes emotion

92
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory (1927)

A

stimuli simultaneously trigger activity in the body and emotional experience in the brain

93
Q

Schachter-singer two factor theory (1960s) + evidence

A
  • experience stimuli, experience physiological arousal, look for cues in the environment to explain why, use this info to label physical arousal as specific emotion

EVIDENCE: misattribution (mislabeling) occurs to situations because of physiological arousal

94
Q

Darwin’s View on facial expressions

A

facial expressions evolved, are adaptive, universal, and innate

95
Q

Facial feedback hypothesis

A

sensations from movement of facial muscles are interpreted by brain as different emotions

96
Q

Sexual orientation

A

EMOTIONAL and sexual attraction to a particular sex and/or gender

97
Q

Bisexuality

A

attraction to two or more genders

98
Q

Pansexuality

A

attraction to all genders (or regardless of gender)

99
Q

Asexuality

A

lack of sexual attraction towards any gender
- romantic/emotional attraction vs. sexual attraction

100
Q

What are the causes/theories of sexual orientation?

A

Causes are UNKNOWN
Theories:
- enviormental factors (little evidence)
- biological factors (strong evidence)

101
Q

Sex

A

biological attributes used to categorize people as male or female

102
Q

Intersex

A

a person whos biological characteristics don’t fit into typically defined male or female categories

103
Q

Gender

A

SOCIALLY constructed set of roles, behavior, expectations, and identities used to classify people

104
Q

Gender Identity

A

refers to a person’s internal sense of their gender (who we think we are)

105
Q

Transgender

A

someone whose sex assigned at birth is different from their gender identity

106
Q

Cisgender

A

gender identity matches sex assigned at birth

107
Q

Non-binary (enby)

A

gender identity exists outside of male/female binary

108
Q

Gender fluid

A

no fixed gender identity, gender fluctuates over time and in different contexts

109
Q

Gender expression

A

what we show to the world/what gender we like to be perceived as

110
Q

Gender dysphoria

A

when a person expirences distress over incongruence between their gender identity & sex they were assigned at birth

111
Q

Gender Affirming Care Model (APA)

A
  1. before puberty = social transition only
  2. after puberty: possible medical transition
112
Q

Sexual Response - Masters and Johnsons (1960s)

A
  1. Excitement: physiological arousal begins = penis erection, vaginal lubrication
  2. Plateau: sexual arousal continues = penis full erection & pre-ejaculation fluid at tip, orgasmic platform for vagina
  3. Orgasm: series of muscular contractions in genital area, ejaculatory fluid
  4. Resolution: body returns to unaroused state & refractory period (time after orgasm where another orgasm cant occur)
113
Q

What are the only things that can prevent STI?

A

condoms

114
Q

Social psychology

A

the study of how people think about, influence and are affected by other people

115
Q

Attributions

A

inferences that people draw about the causes of events and behavior (guesses)

116
Q

What are the two distinctions of behavior?

A
  1. Internal-external dimension
    • internal: explanations based on personal traits
    • external: explanations based on situational factors

vs.

  1. Stability dimension
    • unstable cause: temporary, able to change
    • stable cause: permanent, unable to change
117
Q

Effort, Mood, Fatigue

A

internal, unstable causes
ex. passing an exam because you were motivated to pass

118
Q

Ability, Intelligence

A

internal, stable causes
ex. you passed the exam because youre good at the subject

119
Q

Luck, Chance, Oppurtunity

A

external, unstable cause
ex. you pass the exam because you got the “easy” variation of the test

120
Q

Task, Difficulty

A

stable, external causes
ex. passing the exam because its always structured in the same way

121
Q

Actor-observer bias

A

tendency to attribute our own behavior to external causes while attributing the same behavior from other people to internal causes

122
Q

Fundamental attribution error

A

part of the actor-observer bias: we believe others do things because of internal traits

123
Q

Self-serving bias

A

part of the actor-observer bias: tendency to make internal attributions for our success and external attributions to our failures

124
Q

Just World Hypothesis

A

the belief that the world is just/fair - people get the outcomes they deserve
*** leads to victim blaming

125
Q

Attitudes

A

our feelings, opinions, and beliefs about people, objects, and ideas

126
Q

When do our attitudes affect our actions

A
  • when they’re strong
  • when more time is spent talking/practicing them
  • the topic effects you directly
127
Q

Cognitive dissonance

A

psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions

128
Q

How can we handle cognitive dissonance?

A
  • change the behavior (difficult)
  • change the attitude/belief (easier, defense mechanisms)
129
Q

Self-Perception Theory

A

individuals make inferences about how they feel (their attitudes) by examining our behaviors (how we act)

130
Q

Social roles

A

an expected pattern of behavior based on the position a person holds in a culture or situation

131
Q

Social norms

A

unwritten rules about which behaviors that are considered acceptable in a particular social group/culture

132
Q

Scripts

A

a person’s package of knowledge about a particular kind of situation they’ve encountered frequently

133
Q

Conformity

A

aligning your attitudes, opinions, or behaviors to those of other people
- pressure can be real or imaginary

134
Q

Asch’s expirement

A
  • participants had to pick a line that matched another line from the lineup
  • 37% conformed
  • conformity increases w/ group size increase
135
Q

Why do we conform?

A
  • Informational social influence: we believe others are right and we would like to be right too
  • Normative social influence: the influence others have on us because we want to be liked/normal
136
Q

Obedience

A

behavior in compliance with a direct command, often issues by an authority figure

137
Q

Stanley Milgram Experiment

A
  • people “administered” an electric shock because they were told to
  • 65% went all the way to 450 volts, no one stopped before 300 volts
  • indicates that regular people may obey authority even when asked to administer harm
138
Q

The Bystander Effect

A

people are less likely to provide help when many people are present than when alone

139
Q

Information Influence Theory

A

we look to others for information about the situation

140
Q

Diffusion of responsibility theory

A

in the presence of others, individuals feel less personal responsibility to do something

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