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LIFE 102 > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Do organisms contain the same genes throughout development?

A

Yes: every somatic cell has the same genome

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2
Q

What makes cells have different functions?

A

Different proteins are in different cells

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3
Q

How can polymerase copy DNA if it is all wrapped up?

A

Acetylation

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4
Q

What is acetylation

A

Histones have tails that interact with the acetyl group to loosen the packing allowing the DNA to be exposed

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5
Q

What is methylation?

A

Histones interact with methyl and the DNA stays packed

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6
Q

What is epigenetics?

A

A heritable change that does not change the nucleotides in the genome but does change the expression of genes (environmental agents, trauma, stress, famine, obesity can pass on to offspring)

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7
Q

What are transcription factors?

A

Protein-based regulation. Proteins initiating or regulating transcription

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8
Q

What are general transcription factors (TFs)

A

Initiation complex: TATA box protein and TAF accessory factors

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9
Q

What are enhancer sites?

A

It is a promoter that loops or bends DNA allowing RNA synthesis

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10
Q

What are specific transcription factors

A

time and tissue

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11
Q

How do different types of regulations occur

A

Coordinate expression: Different combinations of genes allow for different regulations

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12
Q

What is alternative splicing?

A

Splisosomes in different cells can splice pre-mRNA differently causing different types of proteins to be produced from the same genetic material.

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13
Q

What are small interfering RNA (siRNA)?

A

They create a perfect complement to RNA to degrade RNA later

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14
Q

What are micro (miRNA)?

A

They are an imperfect fit for RNA to inhibit translation

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15
Q

What is the RISC protein complex?

A
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16
Q

What does CRISPR stand for?

A

Clustered, regularly interspaced, short, palindromic, repeats

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17
Q

What is bioremediation?

A

Using a biological system to remove pollutants from an ecosystem

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18
Q

What is gene therapy?

A

Providing a normal copy of a gene to a person who has a defective copy of that gene

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19
Q

What is Ex-vivo gene therapy?

A

It means outside of life. taking cells from a patient, changing them, then returning them to their body.

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20
Q

What is In-vivo gene therapy

A

it means inside of life. Directly adding treatment, that did not originally come from the organism, into patients.

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21
Q

What is germline modification?

A

Editing a human while they are a single-cell embryo so that as they grow up every cell is edited including their germ cells

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22
Q

What is microevolution?

A

Change in allele frequency over time happening within a population or species

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23
Q

What is macroevolution?

A

Descent with modification

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24
Q

What are some ways we can see evolution?

A

Fossils

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25
Q

What is isotope dating?

A

Isotopes decay from unstable to stable at a given rate. This rate of decay can be used to determine how old a fossil is.

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26
Q

What are evolutionary features that are evidence of anstresial traits?

A

Vestigial structures

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27
Q

What are homologous traits?

A

Traits shared in different species because it was present in the common ancestor

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28
Q

What is convergent evolution?

A

Common selective pressures lead to similar traits evolving independently

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29
Q

What are species?

A

A species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring

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30
Q

How are species determined?

A

Something that blocks the gene flow from different populations. They will have different allele frequencies, possibly different phenotypes and instincts, and can’t reproduce together.

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31
Q

What is a hybrid species?

A

A hybrid species is the offspring of two different species or subspecies that have mated or cross-pollinated.

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32
Q

What are the Prezygotic Isolation Mechanisms?

A
  1. Ecological isolation
  2. Behavioral isolation
  3. Temporal isolation
  4. Mechanical isolation
  5. Gametic Isolation
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33
Q

What are Postzygotic Isolation Mechanisms?

A

Zygotes being blocked from developing into normal reproductive adults

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34
Q

What are Prezygotic Isolating Mechanisms?

A

Gametes blocked from coming together to create a zygote

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35
Q

When do Postzygotic isolation mechanisms occur?

A

After fertilization

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36
Q

What occurs from Postzygotic Isolation mechanisms?

A

hybrids will form, but will be inviable, infertile, or have lower fitness

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37
Q

What keeps 2 individuals reproductively isolated?

A

Prezygotic Isolation and Postzygotic isolation

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38
Q

What are the Prezygotic Isolation factors?

A

Ecological, Behavioral, Temporal, Mechanical, Gametic

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39
Q

What is one factor that can lead to speciation?

A

Natural Selection

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40
Q

How do species form?

A

Populations must diverge and reproductive isolation must evolve (genetic drift or natural selection then geneflow)

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41
Q

What is Allopatric Speciation?

A

The geographic separation of populations

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42
Q

What is Vicariance?

A

A barrier that arises within an existing population causes speciation (population exist before barrier)

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43
Q

What is Dispersal?

A

Individuals crossing an existing barrier then evolve separately from the original group (barrier exists before population)

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44
Q

What is sympatric Speciation?

A

Speciation without geographic isolation

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45
Q

What is Ployploidy

A

There are extra sets of chromosomes causing instantaneous isolation.

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46
Q

What is Allopolyploidy?

A

Hybridization between species
Different chromosomes

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47
Q

What does non-random mating cause?

A

Disruptive sexual selection

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47
Q

What is Autoployploidy?

A

Error is meiosis nondisjunction

48
Q

What is Habitat Differentiation?

A

Different use of the local habitat with a non-overlapping territory.

49
Q

What are all of the Allospatric Speciation factors?

A

Vicariance and Dispersal

50
Q

Why can genomes change over time?

A

Single base pair changes, gene duplications, genome duplication, transposable elements, structural changes

51
Q

What determines genome size?

A

amount of DNA

52
Q

What are the components of the genome?

A

~75% non-coding repetitive DNA and the rest coding

53
Q

What are transposable elements>

A

“jumping genes” are elements that move in the gene that cause a different expression of the gene

54
Q

Is DNA mobile?

A

Yes, about 50% of DNA is mobile and is known as TEs

55
Q

What is the “cut and paste” mechanism?

A

Transposase cuts out DNA and reinserts the transposon (the new mobile element) somewhere else in the genome

56
Q

What is the “copy and paste” mechanism?

A

A copy of DNA is created and the transposon (new mobile element) is copied and inserted somewhere else

57
Q

What are the difference between retrotransposons and transposons?

A

Retrotransposons are the RNA intermediate that transposons code for reverse transcriptase. This is done to get a copy of the original DNA to add somewhere else in the genome.

58
Q

What are the consequences of Transposable Elements?

A

If inserted in an intron nothing will occur. If inserted in an exon different sequences will occur and cause mutations. Unequal crossing over can occur in the recombination of homologous chromosomes as well.

59
Q

Where do TEs From from?

A

Viruses

60
Q

What is needed to be a virus?

A

A nucleic acid in the middle with a protein coat. This is not a cell.

61
Q

What are the two structures of viruses?

A

Helical (protein spiral) or icosahedral (dice shaped with additional spindles)

62
Q

How do Viruses replicate?

A
  1. Attach to host
  2. Enter & transfer DNA/RNA
  3. Make new viral parts
    i. Replicate DNA/RNA
    ii. Synthesize proteins
  4. Self-assemble into new viruses
  5. Exit host
63
Q

What are some defense systems against viruses?

A

Immune cells and antibodies

64
Q

What is coevolution?

A

Reciprocal genetic change in interacting species owning to natural selection imposed by each other

65
Q

Why do stomatic cells have different gene expressions even when they have the same genome?

A

Different proteins are in different types of cells and at different stages of development

66
Q

How is chromatin organized?

A

DNA: organized around
Histones: organized into
Nucleosomes: compacts into
Chromatin

67
Q

How can polymerase
make a copy if DNA is
all wrapped up?

A

Unpack the DNA through Acetylation

68
Q

What is Acetylation?

A

Packing around the histone loosens

69
Q

What is methylation?

A

The tightening of the DNA around Histones

70
Q

What is Epigenetics?

A

A heritable change that does not change the underlying sequence of
DNA, but does change the expression of genes (Environmental agents, Trauma & stress, Famine & Obesity)

71
Q

What does siRNA do?

A

Degrade RNA

72
Q

What does miRNA do?

A

Inhibits translation

73
Q

What does Ubiquitin do?

A

Marks protein to be destroid

74
Q

What does Proteasome do?

A

Degrade polypeptides

75
Q

What is Random Mutagenesis?

A

Creating a large library of collection of mutants

76
Q

What is Site-Directed Mutagenesis?

A

Specifically, create a single point ofa mutant of interest

77
Q

What’s a drawback of library mutagenesis?

A

if you don’t know what you’re looking for or there’s little
research out there on your gene of interest, it could be useful to do
this random mutagenesis

78
Q

What are the Drawbacks of site-directed mutagenesis?

A

You want to use this technique when you have at least
some idea of a specific region of interest in your gene, or if there’s a
a lot of research has already been done on your gene

79
Q

What is Gene ontology?

A

A chart that tells you the function of genes

80
Q

How does the gene expression profile change over time in an organism?

A

Higher and lower reads over time

81
Q

What does CRISPR stand for?

A

Clustered, Regularly Interspaced, Short, Palindromic Repeats

82
Q

What is Bioremediation?

A

Using a biological system (like bacteria, fungus,
etc.) to remove pollutants from an ecosystem

83
Q

What does Transgenic mean?

A

adding DNA from a
different organism into another (like
adding a pepper gene into a banana)

84
Q

What is Gene Therapy?

A

Providing a normal copy of
a gene to a person who has a defective copy of that gene

85
Q

What is Ex-vivo gene therapy?

A

Outside of life. Taking cells from a patient, changing them,
then returning them

86
Q

What is in-vivo gene therapy?

A

Inside of life. Directly adding the treatment to the patient

87
Q

What is Germ Line Modification?

A

Editing a human while they are a single-cell embryo, thus, they grow up to have every cell edited

88
Q

Which type of gene mutations will be passed to offspring?

A

germline

89
Q

What is a ”population”?

A

A group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed

90
Q

What are allele frequencies?

A

measures how many out of the total population

91
Q

What is evolution?

A

The change in allele frequencies over time

92
Q

Do individuals evolve?

A

NO: populations evolve over time

93
Q

What is Gene Flow?

A

Movement of Allele among populations

94
Q

What is nonrandom mating?

A

Mating based on phenotype/genotype

95
Q

What is genetic drift?

A

Changes in allele frequencies due to random chance

96
Q

What is natural selection?

A

Adaptive alleles to survive

97
Q

What is Assortative Mating?

A

Homozygous mating

98
Q

What is Disassortive Mating?

A

Heterozygous mating

99
Q

What is bottlenecks?

A

severe reduction in the size of a population and its
genetic variation (often due to a drastic event)

100
Q

What are founder events?

A

a population is started by just a few individuals

101
Q

What is artificial selection?

A

Breeder selects desired (advantageous) traits

102
Q

What is natural selection?

A

The environment selects for advantageous traits

103
Q

What are adaptations?

A

Traits that confer an advantage in a given environment

104
Q

What is sexual dimorphism?

A

phenotypic difference based on sex

105
Q

What is Directional Selection?

A

phenotype of one extreme is favored so allele frequencies shift in that direction

106
Q

What is Stabilizing Selection?

A

Intermediate phenotype is favored
and alleles frequencies move toward the mean

107
Q

What is Disruptive Selection?

A

Both extreme phenotypes are favored. Alleles frequencies of extremes increase

108
Q

What is Frequency-dependent selection?

A

Phenotypes are favored based on how common or rare they are

109
Q

How do evolution mechanisms interact?

A

Mutation CREATES variation
Natural selection SORTS variation
Drift ELIMINATES variation
Gene flow RESTORES variation

110
Q

What is Phylogenetics?

A

the study of
evolutionary relationships

111
Q

What is biogeography?

A

the geographical distribution of plants and animals.

112
Q

What is geographic variation?

A

Species can vary among
populations with intermediates
at boundaries

113
Q

What is a species?

A

a group of populations whose members have the
potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring

114
Q

What is the morphological Species concept?

A

distinguished by phenotypic traits

115
Q

What is the Ecological Species concept?

A

distinguished by ecological roles or
niches

116
Q

What is the phylogenic species concept?

A

distinguished by the smallest group of organisms that share a common ancestor

117
Q

What is the biological species concept?

A

a species is a group of populations whose members have the
potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring

118
Q
A

LIFE 102 (4 decks)

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