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LIFE 102 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Why do cells divide?

A

Asexual reproduction, tissue repair and renewal, development, and growth.

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2
Q

What makes are the resulting cells called after-division

A

Daughter cells (genetically identical)

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3
Q

What is the main difference between mitosis and meiosis?

A

Mitosis creates identical copies and meiosis creates non-identical copies

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4
Q

What kind of cells does mitosis occur in?

A

Stomatic Cells (soma= body)

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5
Q

What kind of cells does meiosis occur in?

A

Germ cells (reproductive organs, produces gametes)

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6
Q

What is the goal of mitosis?

A

to create a duplicate cell

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7
Q

What is a genome?

A

an entire set of DNA in a cell

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8
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

A structure packed with information in the chromatin that

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9
Q

What is chromatin?

A

complex of DNA and proteins

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10
Q

What is a ploidy?

A

the number of copies of chromosomes in genome

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11
Q

How many copies of chromosomes are in haploids, diploids, and triploid?

A

1,2,3

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12
Q

What is a homozygote?

A

same alleles on each copy

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13
Q

what is a heterozygote?

A

different allele on each copy

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14
Q

What is a chromatid?

A

It is one strand of the duplicated chromosomes (one part of the x shape)

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15
Q

What are each side of chromatid called?

A

sister chromatids

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16
Q

What is a centromere?

A

The center of a chromosome that is bonded by a protein.

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17
Q

What is a kinetochore?

A

a protein that attaches to the sister chromatids to pull them apart.

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18
Q

List the phases of a cell cycle in order.

A

Interphase, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis (IPPMATC)

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19
Q

What is interphase?

A

S: main growth phase

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20
Q

What do prophase and prometaphase do?

A

prepare for dividing

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21
Q

What do metaphase and anaphase do?

A

Divide genetic material

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22
Q

What does telophase do?

A

It reassembles the chromosomes

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23
Q

What does cytokinesis do?

A

final divide of the cells

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24
Q

What are the two irreversible points of mitosis?

A

Replication (s-phase), separation of chromatids (anaphase)

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25
Q

Where does mitosis DNA replication occur?

A

Interphase

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26
Q

What is the goal of mitosis?

A

to produce two genetically identical daughter cells

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27
Q

What are the three checkpoints of mitosis?

A

G1: is the cell ready to divide, G2: is the DNA damaged, Spindle: are the chromosomes able to separate properly

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28
Q

Does DNA replication occur during the Mitosis phase?

A

No: occurs in G2 (interphase)

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29
Q

Why does genetic variation occur?

A

genetic variation

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30
Q

What is the observable genetic variation called?

A

Phenotypic variation

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31
Q

What is a gamete?

A

a specialized cell with half of the chromosomes of the parent cell?

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32
Q

What is a zygote?

A

cells created by the fusion of two gametes

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33
Q

how are zygotes produced.

A

One parent cell becomes two daughter cells (gametes) and then the offspring cells are gametes from two different individuals fused together.

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34
Q

Meiosis 1 causes? Meiosis 2 causes?

A

The parent cell’s homologs separate into daughter cells (xx to x). Then the homologs separate into chromatids into daughter cells (x to I)

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35
Q

What does reduction division mean?

A

The genetic material is reduced by half because of cell division

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36
Q

What is meiosis simplfied?

A

Two cycles of mitosis without replication

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37
Q

What are some features unique to Meiosis I?

A

Cohesion proteins, polar kinetochore, and homologs separate

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38
Q

What are some features unique to Mitosis?

A

No cohesion between chromatids, the kinetochore is horizontal, and the chromatids are separated.

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39
Q

What is independent assortment?

A

genes do not prevent other genes from being randomly in DNA (having brown eyes does not make someone more likely to have brown hair)

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40
Q

How does meiosis generate new combinations of genes?

A

Independent assortment, crossing over, random fertilization

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41
Q

What is crossing over?

A

genetic recombination between nonsister chromatids that occurs during metaphase I. Parental gene regions are shuffled.

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42
Q

what is Chiasmata?

A

sites of crossing over

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43
Q

Which portions of chromosomes swap places during crossing over?

A

The homologous chromosomes swap regions.

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44
Q

What is the Theory of Particulate Inheritance (1866)?

A

Alleles (particles of inheritance) can be moved around and passed between generations without blending.

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45
Q

What are True-Bred lines?

A

a group of organisms that will always produce the same phenotype in their offspring even when intercrossed

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46
Q

What are monohybrid crosses?

A

a cross between only two variations of a single trait.

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47
Q

How do you write a Mendelian ratio?

A

The ratio will have the dominate number first then the recessive. For example, 3:1 means a 3/4 dominate, 1/4 recessive

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48
Q

What is the law of dominance?

A

Alleles are dominate or recessive. Dominate alleles will be expressed in the phenotype.

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49
Q

What is the law of Segregation?

A

Alleles of the same gene will separate into different gammates.

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50
Q

What is a test cross?

A

Crossing an unknown genotype with a recessive genotype. If heterozygous, the recessive trait has a chance of showing.

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51
Q

What is the law of independent assortment?

A

Different traits will separate independently from each other (having blonde hair does not influence having brown eyes).

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52
Q

What is a dihybrid cross?

A

A cross between true-bred parents for two different traits.

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53
Q

What are simple traits?

A

simple dominant and recessive

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54
Q

What are the complexities of single-gene interactions?

A

Complex dominance, pleiotropy, multi-alleic genes

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55
Q

What are the complexities of multi-gene interactions

A

Polygenic traits, epistasis

56
Q

What is complete dominance?

A

Dominate alleles masking recessive alleles in the phenotype

57
Q

What is incomplete dominance?

A

When both alleles are present in the phenotype? (red + white =pink)

58
Q

What is codominance?

A

Both alleles are expressed independently at the same time. ( black cow + white cow = cow with spots)

59
Q

Do dominant alleles stop recessive alleles?

A

No: alleles do not interact directly with each other

60
Q

What is Polygenic Inheritance?

A

A pattern where a trait is decided by multiple genes. (eyes have 6 genes)

61
Q

What is Epistasis?

A

Multiple genes must interact to influence the genotype

62
Q

What is multifactorial inheritance?

A

phenotypes are determined by interactions between genetic and environmental factors

63
Q

What are Mendelian traits?

A

the inheritance of traits that is controlled by a single gene with two alleles

64
Q

What is the difference between Pleiotropy and Epistasis?

A

Pleiotropy has one gene with many traits and epistasis has multiple genes to create one trait.

65
Q

How are genes carried on?

A

Chromosomes

66
Q

What does homogamatic mean?

A

It is the female sex chromosomes (xx)

67
Q

What does heterogamatic mean?

A

It is the male sex chromosomes (xy)

68
Q

What are autosomes?

A

Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

69
Q

How any chromosomes do humans have

A

23: 22 autosomes and 1 sex chromosomes

70
Q

Do sex chromosomes go through recombination?

A

No: while they do follow Mendelian laws (separate into different gametes) they don’t recombine (they can be used on punnett squares)

71
Q

What are sex-linked traits?

A

Traits determined by genes on the sex chromosomes

72
Q

What are bar bodies?

A

Inactivated x chromosomes in a cell (one of the two x chromosomes in females are inactivated randomly)

73
Q

Why do some genes not follow the expected pattern of chromosomal inheritance?

A

Recombination and independent assortment

74
Q

What is the recombination rate based on?

A

Physical location: the closer traits are on a chromosome together the less likely they will be recombined apart

75
Q

What are linked genes?

A

Genes that are close together on a chromosome

76
Q

What are centimorgans?

A

a measure of the probability of recombination happening (1 cM + 1% chance of crossing over during meiosis)

77
Q

What is the maximum recombination frequency?

A

50%: only two non sister chromatids can cross over from two chromosomes

78
Q

Can double cross over occur?

A

Yes but only between one non sister chromatid pair when crossing two chromosomes (the other pair is not effected)

79
Q

What is the structure of DNA?

A

5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base

80
Q

What is Chargaff’s rule?

A

Ratios between bases will be equal. [f(A)+f(T)]+[f(G)+f(C)]= 100%

81
Q

Which nitrogenous bases are purines?

A

Adenine and Guanine

82
Q

What does anti-parallel mean?

A

The strands of DNA run from 5’ to 3’ and connect to each other in a parallel and reversed way

83
Q

How is the original DNA preserved?

A

Semi-conservative: one strand is from the original DNA strand and the other is a copy

84
Q

How does the info in DNA get to the rest of the cell?

A

DNA stays in the nucleus so DNA is transcribed into RNA then RNA is translated to proteins

85
Q

What is the difference between transcription and translation?

A

Transcription is the process of mRNA being created from DNA and translation is RNA-producing proteins in the ribosome

86
Q

What is the sequence of DNA strands to RNA strands

A

DNA Coding strand (sense, 5’ to 3’), DNA Template strand (antisense, 3’ to 5’), Transcribed mRNA (5’ to 3’)

87
Q

What is needed to start transcription

A

A promoter is needed to start the initiation of RNA (TATA box)

88
Q

What does RNA polymerase do?

A

Synthesizes RNA from DNA template strand (5’ to 3’)

89
Q

How is the process of transcription terminated?

A

There are specialized sequences to end transcription like AAUAAA and an AAAAA-tail

90
Q

What are the steps of transcription?

A

1) Initiation (Promoter region/ RNA polymerase), 2) Elongation (RNA Nucleotides), 3) Termination (AAAA-tail)

91
Q

What is splicing?

A

Removing non-coding regions

92
Q

What are introns?

A

non-coding regions in a gene sequence that appear in RNA but not in mRNA (they do not make proteins). They also stay within the nucleus

93
Q

What are exons?

A

A sequence in genes that code for proteins

94
Q

What are the differences between exons and introns

A

Exons are USED to create proteins and introns are REMOVED during RNA splicing

95
Q

What does the spliceosome do?

A

Removes introns

96
Q

Where does transcription occur?

A

In the nucleus

97
Q

Where does translation occur?

A

In the cytoplasm (specifically the ribosome)

98
Q

Where does transcription occur versus translation

A

Transcription occurs in the nucleus but translation occurs in the ribosome

98
Q

Why is it called translation?

A

RNA is in a different language than proteins (nucleic acids to amino acids)

99
Q

What is the monomer of proteins?

A

Amino acids

100
Q

What is the polymer of proteins

A

Polypeptides

101
Q

What are codons?

A

Triplets of mRNA

102
Q

What do codons code?

A

one codon creates one amino acid

103
Q

What is the reading frame of codons?

A

The reading frame is an interval of codons that begin and end with the start and stop codons

104
Q

What is mRNAs job?

A

To copy the DNA

105
Q

What is tRNAs job?

A

add amino acid to polypeptides

106
Q

What is rRNA’s job?

A

Assists in the ribosome to catalyze the synthesis of polypeptides

107
Q

What part of the tRNA attaches to codons

A

anticodon

108
Q

What is the enzyme is used to charge tRNA

A

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase

109
Q

What direction is mRNA fed into the ribosome

A

5’ to 3’

110
Q

What are some characteristics of DNA

A

double helix, complementary bases, antiparallel

111
Q

What does DNA gyrase do?

A

It unwinds the DNA ahead of helicase

112
Q

What does Helicase do?

A

Unzips the DNA strand

113
Q

What does SSBP do?

A

Holds DNA strands apart

114
Q

What does primase do?

A

It synthesizes RNA primer for polymerase

115
Q

What does DNA polymerase do?

A

Synthesizes new DNA strand

116
Q

What does Ligase do?

A

It stitches together Okazaki fragments

117
Q

What direction does DNA polymerase move in?

A

5’ to 3’

118
Q

What are Okazaki fragments?

A

The lagging strand has Okazaki fragments due to being synthesized in a semi-discontinuous way

119
Q

What are telomeres?

A

A cap of repeated sequences at the end of chromosomes that prevents the shorting of chromosomes

120
Q

What does telomerase do?

A

It is an enzyme that helps to maintain the length of telomeres preventing ageing

121
Q

What does exonuclease do?

A

It removes wrong DNA after DNA is produced (proofreading)

122
Q

What are point mutations?

A

When a single nucleotide is changed. This can be caused by substitutions, insertions, or deletions (Ex: ATCGA -> AATCGA)

123
Q

How do silent point mutations impact amino acids?

A

no change

124
Q

What is a missense?

A

A mutation that causes the amino acid to change

125
Q

What is a nonsense mutation?

A

A point mutation that causes a stop codon to occur prematurely

126
Q

What are the three types of point mutations?

A

silent, missense, nonsense

127
Q

What is a frameshift mutation?

A

Instead of a substitution, a point mutation inserts or deletes

128
Q

What are triplet mutations?

A

Three nucleotides at a time are inserted or deleted

129
Q

What are chromosomal mutations?

A

A change that alters the structure of a chromosome

130
Q

What are the types of Chromosomal mutations?

A

Deletions, duplications, inversions, reciprocal translocations

131
Q

What are deletion mutations?

A

When more than three genes are deleted

132
Q

What are duplication mutations?

A

If genes gain extra

133
Q

What are inversion mutations?

A

Reverse order of codons

134
Q

What are reciprocal translocation mutations?

A

A swap gene region between non-homologous chromosomes

LIFE 102 (4 decks)

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