exam 4

Question 1

why do cells need to communicate

Answer 1

coordinate function, development, and responses to the environment, orchestrated through chemical messengers - hormones that act on receiver target cells, target cells respond

Question 2

what is an endocrine system

Answer 2

hormones are released in one place and target cells

Question 3

control systems

Answer 3

gather feedback on how the process is going, responses can be stimulating or inhibiting

Question 4

feed-forward regulation:

Answer 4

a master signal hormone stimulates the production of target hormones by other endocrine organs

Question 5

feedback loops need

Answer 5

must have some sort of negative feedback loop because we don’t want it to be on all the time: fewer things produced, inhibiting signal from start

Question 6

integrated systems communicate what

Answer 6

which tissues should grow and when

Question 7

integrated systems communicate when

Answer 7

adequate nutrition for growth signals, growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), GH binds to receptors on target cells, causing them to divide, GH stimulates the production of IGF-1, a hormone that stimulates uptake of amino acids, somatostatin, gherkin increases food intake, all organisms have growth hormones, no growth hormone products don’t exist

Question 8

integrated systems normal metabolism

Answer 8

communicate energy storage status, energy usage, energy needs, communicate all the time

Question 9

integrated systems metabolism during stress

Answer 9

glucose needed rapidly, during a stress response

Question 10

integrated systems sexual phenotype

Answer 10

multivariate; morphological traits: gonads, genitals, ornamentation, body size, reproductive states: estrous cycling and gametogenesis, behavior: courtship displays, mating receptivity, aggression, parental care

Question 11

host-parasite co-evolution

Answer 11

hosts are better at resisting infection.clearing parasites, parasites are better at exploiting host and evading clearance produce more offspring, both have evolutionary constraints and may face many trade offs

Question 12

host-parasite immune defenses

Answer 12

evolved to be more complex with the complexity of multicellular life, highly redundant multilevel network at work in ever cell, detect, resist, remove, and tolerate danger, communicate health and disease signal with many other physiological systems

Question 13

three levels of immune defense

Answer 13

1. physical barriers: skin and mucosa
2. innate immunity: non-specific immunity present from birth
3. adaptive immunity: specific immunity learned after contact with a pathogen

Question 14

immune cells and tissues

Answer 14

bone marrow is site of hematopoiesis, innate: cells that reside in tissue and blood - surveillance crew, adaptive: lymphocytes mostly reside in lymphoid tissue, specialized forces called in after danger is identified

Question 15

innate immune response: recognize danger

Answer 15

some pathogens breach skin and mucosal barrier, specific proteins and receptors recognize common patterns on microbial surfaces and bind to them, innate cells in tissue at site of infection: secrete peptides that destroy microbes through membrane destabilization, engulf through phagocytosis, induce inflammation

Question 16

innate immune response: inflammation

Answer 16

occurs when innate immune cells recognize infection and release inflammatory cytokines, increased fluid at the site of infection, fever, cells that phagocytized antigens migrate to lymphoid tissue to activate adaptive immune response

Question 17

adaptive immune response

Answer 17

first antigen encounter causes first adaptive immune response, B cells produce antibody if they recognize the pathogen, some t cells can directly kill cells infected with intracellular pathogens, some activated B cells become memory cells: long-lived cells capable of activation if exposed to same pathogen, secondary exposure reactivates memory cells, resulting in a stronger and faster immune response

Question 18

immune system malfunctions

Answer 18

hypersensitivity reactions, autoimmune diseases, cancer

Question 19

hypersensitivity reactions

Answer 19

allergies: recognition of a foreign but not innocuous material, activate granulocytes, induce localized symptoms, can be severe/deadly (anaphylaxis), some are genetic, most are environmental

Question 20

autoimmune dieases

Answer 20

B cells and T cells that recognize self-molecules as danger enter circulatory and lymphatic systems, adaptive immune response to tissues within the body, can cause inflammation at recognition sites or destruction of the tissue

Question 21

cancer

Answer 21

individuals acquire random mutations in genes over a lifetime, some mutations occur in genes controlling

Question 22

eco immunology

Answer 22

hoe ecology affects immunity and vice versa

Question 23

tenets of eco immunology

Answer 23

immune responses are dependent on intrinsic and extrinsic factors and prior experiences, immune maintenance and mounting an immune response are energetically demanding processes, individual immunity can affect ecological interaction and processes

Question 24

benefits of parasitism

Answer 24

ready access to nutrition from host, free transport to other areas, shelter from adverse environmental conditions and predation

Question 25

steps of parasitism

Answer 25

find a host, establish infection, grow/multiply in host, sexually reproduce (sometimes), ensure transmission

Question 26

finding a host

Answer 26

hosts can be far apart especially for small parasite, strategies to overcome this challenge: produce lots of propagules/offspring, actively seek out a host (questing)

Question 27

infecting and establishing a host

Answer 27

successful infection requires overcoming outer barriers to enter host, what are portals of entry: eyes, nose, ears, mouth, anus, successful establishment may require a new body form moving into a specific organ or tissue, attaching firmly to the host in the right location

Question 28

growth/multiplication

Answer 28

successful growth/ multiplication requires: withstand conditions within host, uptake of nutrients from host, prevent host clearing

Question 29

sexual reproduction (for some)

Answer 29

may involve the information of a transmissible stage or form of the parasite

Question 30

how does a parasite get from one host to another

Answer 30

direct transmission: parasite transferred from reservoir to susceptible host via direct contact or droplet spread

Question 31

direct contact

Answer 31

physical contact with reservoir

Question 32

droplet spread

Answer 32

large, short-range aerosols from sneezing coughing, or talking

Question 33

indirect transmission

Answer 33

airborne, vehicle borne, vector borne: parasites spread by another animal

Question 34

disease triangle

Answer 34

the set of conditions that dictate whether exposure to an infection agent results in disease, host traits and parasite traits

Question 35

invasion biology

Answer 35

species are moving faster than ever

Question 36

invasive species

Answer 36

non-native, introduced species that cause harm and outcompete native species

Question 37

accidental invasion

Answer 37

ship ballast water, packing materials and shipping pallets, firewood, agricultural animals

Question 38

purposeful invasion

Answer 38

ornamental planting, erosion control, agriculture, sport, fur, biological controls, pets, aquariums, wildlife value

Question 39

ecological causes of invasion

Answer 39

predator, parasite, competitor release, lower diversity + easier to invade, fast growing/ reproducing, adaptations to disturbance

Question 40

adjust: what types of phenotypic plasticity responses are occuring

Answer 40

changes in phenology, phenological shifts can cascade through trophic levels, behavioral changes to novel environments, acclimation or developmental plasticity can include metabolic, cardiovascular, and muscle function

Question 41

adapt: evolution in the city

Answer 41

pollution from steel mills in industrial cities causes higher mutation rates, urbanization leads to stronger genetic drift and decreased genetic diversity, land use change effects gene flow and migration, populations are adapting to urbanization temperature gradients