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A&P cardio system part 2 > EXAM 4 > Flashcards

EXAM 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Movement of food from one end of digestive tract to another

A

Propulsion

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2
Q

include a wave of relaxation of circular muscles in front of the mass of food followed by a wave of contraction behind the mass of food

A

Peristalsis/ waves

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3
Q

lubricate, liquefy, buffer, digest food. contains large amount of h2o that makes digestion and absorption easier.

A

secretions

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4
Q

secreted along entire digestive tract, lubricates food and lining of tract (protect epithelial cells)

A

Mucus

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5
Q

secreted by oral cavity, stomach, small intestine, pancreas

A

Enzymes

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6
Q

the movement of molecules out of digestive tract and into blood vessels or lymphatic system.

A

Absorption

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7
Q

is the process of removing waste products of digestion from the body

A

elimination.

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8
Q

where does elimination occur?

A

large intestine.

Modification of waste occurs, including reabsorption of water & salts.

Creates semi solid waste, called feces which are eliminated by the process of defecation.

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9
Q

what are the 4 major tunics/layers, from inner to outer?

A

Mucosa
submucosa
Muscularis
serosa/adventitia

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10
Q

which tunic/ layer is epithelium, stratified squamous in mouth, oropharnx, esophagus & anal canal.

Simple columnar in stomach & intestines ?

A

mucosa

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11
Q

which tunic/layer has connective tissue with nerves, blood & lymphatic vessels, small glands

A

submucosa

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12
Q

which tunic/layer has muscle, esophagus also has skeletal muscle

A

muscularis

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13
Q

which tunic/layer includes connective tissue & simple squamous epithelium ?

A

serosa

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14
Q

a division of the ANS that controls secretions & movement of digestive system.

A

The enteric nervous system

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15
Q

Oral cavity is lined with what tissue?

A

stratified squamous epithelium

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16
Q

Labia (lips) are formed by what tissue?

A

Orbicularis oris muscle & connective tissue

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17
Q

What is the largest muscular organ in oral cavity?

A

Tongue

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18
Q

What divides the tongue?

A

Terminal sulcus divides it into , body and root.

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19
Q

There are two different dental arches in the mouth.

A

Maxillary and mandibular

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20
Q

Each tooth includes

A

Crown, neck, and root.

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21
Q

Nerves & vessels enter & exit pulp cavity in teeth through

A

apical foramen

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22
Q

What surrounds pulp cavity? calcified, living, cellular tissue.

A

Dentin

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23
Q

What protects tooth from abrasion & acids?

A

Enamel. covers dentin in crown.

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24
Q

What helps anchor tooth and covers dentin in root ?

A

cementum.

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25
Q

What is a breakdown of enamel by bacterial acids living on sugars from food?

A

Dental caries. enamel is non living and cannot repair itself so it requires a dental filling.

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26
Q

What may be required to remove pulp?

A

root canal

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27
Q

Inflammation of gingiva, often due to food accumlation in crevices

A

Gingivitis, can lead to periodontal disease. May result in tooth loos and halitosis.

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28
Q

What are the muscle involved in mastication?

A

Temporalis, masseter

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29
Q

3 salivary glands

A

Parotid, submandibular, and sublingual.

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30
Q

What protects and contain lysozyme, antibodies, and antibacterial to wash bacteria away?

A

Saliva

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31
Q

Names of sphincter of esophagus

A

Has an Upper esophageal sphincter, & a lower esophageal sphincter

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32
Q

Structures that food will pass by through the digestive tract

A
  1. Oral cavity
  2. Pharnyx
  3. Esophagus
  4. Stomach
  5. Small intestine, duodenun, jejunum , ilem
  6. Large intestine , cecum, colon, rectum, anal, canal, anus
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33
Q

In stomach, submucosa & mucosa are folded into ?

A

Rugae, which disappear as stomach volume increases

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34
Q

What phase use peristaltic waves to move food down esophagus to stomach?

A

Esophageal phase

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35
Q

in stomach, mucosa lining is simple columnar epithelium that forms invaginations called

A

gastric pits, which are openings for gastric glands that secrete acids.

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36
Q

IN stomach, there are 5 types of stomach epithelial cells called

A
  1. surface mucous cells - on surface around gastric pits, produce alkaline mucous, protects stomach wall from acid.
  2. Mucous neck cells- produce mucous, deepest portions of gastric pit near openings to gastric glands.
  3. Parietal cells- produce HCI & intrinsic factor
  4. Chief cells- produce pepsinogen & gastric lipase
  5. Enteroendocrine cells- produce regulatory hormones that influence secretion or motility.
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37
Q

Once food enters stomach, it is mixed with stomach secretions to form what?

A

Chyme

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38
Q

What do secretions include?

A

Mucus- viscous alkaline; protects stomach wall from acidic chyme & digestive enzymes

Intrinsic factor - by parietal cells, binds with Vit B12, making it more readily absorbed by ileum.

HCI- by parietal cells- makes stomach acidic
Digestive enzymes- such as pepsinogen & gastric lipase by chief cells.

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39
Q

What does HCI do?

A

Kills bacteria

denaturing proteins so proteolytic enzymes can reach internal peptide bonds

provides optimal pH for activation & function of pepsin

stops carbohydrate digestion (inactivates salivary amylase)

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40
Q

What do chief cells secrete?

A

Pepsinogen

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41
Q

Where is pepsinogen packed & released?

A

Into the lumen of stomach via exocytosis.

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42
Q

HCI & previously formed pepsin molecules convert pepsinogen to what?

A

pepsin

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43
Q

When is pepsin most effective ?

A

effective at low pH levels.

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44
Q

Muscular contractions

A

mixing waves - occur every 20 sec, more fluid part pushed from body to stomach towards pyloric sphincter.

Peristaltic waves- less frequent, more powerful. Can force liquified chyme towards & through pyloric sphincter.

45
Q

Small intestine include

A

Duodenum - shortest, secretions from liver & pancreas enter here. Functions in absorption of nutrients & water.

Jejunum- absorption of nutrients & water

Iluem

46
Q

2 small projections of duodenum

A

minor duodenal papilla- opening of accessory pancreatic duct

Major duodenal papilla - common opening of bile duct & pancreatic duct

47
Q

Ileum contains lymphatic nodules called

A

Peyer’s patches.

initiate immune responses against ingested microorganisms.

48
Q

Ileum connects to large intestine at
Ileocecal junction
** Ring of smooth muscle, ileocecal ileocecal sphincter ,& valve, ileocecal valve achieve one-way movement of
contents

A

ileum

49
Q

histology of small intestine

A

circular folds- formed by mucosa & submucosa

vili- projections of mucosa

microvilli- cytoplasmic extensions of epithelial cells

epithelial cell are produced within tubular invaginations of the mucosa.

Absorptive & goblet cells migrate to surface of villi

granular & endocrine cells remain in bottom of gland.

submucosa of duodenum contains tubular brunner’s glands or duodenal glands. protective:secrete alkaline fluuid that contains mucin.

50
Q

examples of hormones release by duodenum include;

A

Secretin

released is stimulated by acidic chyme entering duodenum

secretory effects- decreases gastric secretions & stimulates pancreatic & bile secretions high in HCO3

motility effects- decreases gastric motility

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Release is stimulated by fatty acids & peptides in duodenum

Secretory effects- stimulates pancreatic secretions high in digestive enzymes & release of bile into duodenum

Motility effects- strongly decreases gastric motility.

51
Q

Enzymes of small intestine

A

Enzyme: many bound to absorptive cell microvilli membranes called brush border enzymes.

include:
disaccharidases- break down disaccharidases into monosaccharides.

peptidases- hydrolyze peptide bonds between small chains of amino acids

large surface area brings enzymes into contact with chyme.

after breakdown ,small molecules are absorbed through microvilli

then molecules enter circulatory or lymphatic systems.

52
Q

movement in small intetsine

A

segmental contractions- mix
Peristaltic contractions- primary propel.

distension of small intestine, as well as chemical content of chyme, increase smooth muscle contractions.

Relaxation of ileocecal sphincter allows chyme to pass into large intestine.

53
Q

In large intestine, chyme is converted into

A

feces (poop).

involves absorption of water, vitamins & salts, secretion of mucus, microorganisms.

begins at ileocecal junction, cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal.

54
Q

Proximal end of large intestine.
sac that extend inferioly below iliocecal junction.

A

Cecum.

vermiform appendix is attached to cecum

55
Q

colon of large intestine has 4 parts.

A

Ascending colon
, transverse colon ,
descending colon,
sigmoid colon

Small lipid-filled connective tissue pouches called omental appendages, are attached, along the outside of the colon.

56
Q

One important function is synthesis of ?? which is then absorbed in the large intestine

A

Vitamin K

57
Q

Segmental mixing movements are infrequent and peristaltic waves move chyme through ascending colon.

A

Movements IN large intestine

58
Q

mass movements occur in

A

transverse & descending colon ( large intestine)

59
Q

mass movements must be coordinated with relaxation of anal sphincter so what can occur? parasympathetic reflexes usually coordinate.

A

defecation

60
Q

voluntary actions that stimulate a defecation reflex includes a inspiration & forceful contraction of abdominal muscles, forces feces into rectum, stretch in walls initiates reflex

A

Valsalva Maneuver

61
Q

In liver, L&R lobe is seperated by

A

falciform ligament

62
Q

blood flows into liver via

A

hepatic portal vein and the hepatic artery

63
Q

flow of bile

A

L&R haptic ducts unite into common haptic duct

bile can pass into gallbladder via cystic duct.

cystic duct has 2 way flow of bile… exits gallbladder & enters

common bile duct, which joins pancreatic duct at the hepatopancreatic ampulla

hepatopancreatic ampulla empties into duodenum at the major duodenal papilla.

64
Q

histology of liver

A

at porta hepatis, connective tissue capsule sends branches into liver, dividing liver into hexagonal hepatic lobules.

each lobule has a portal triad at each corner & a central vein in the center

central vein collects blood as it leaves lobule.

central veins unite to form hepatic veins which exit liver & empty into inf. vena cava

65
Q

Histology liver pt 2

A

hepatic cords, made of hepatocytes, functional cells of the liver, which take up nutrients from portal blood.

nutrients are stored, detoxified, or used to make new compounds, then released into hepatic sinusoids, or into bile canaliculi.

hepatic sinusoids are blood channels in spaces between hepatic cords– lined with endothelial cells and hepatic phagocytic cells called kupffer cells.

bile canaliculus is a cleft lumen in between cells of each cord.

66
Q

flow of blood & bile through liver

A
  1. hepatic artery bring oxygenated blood to liver.
    - enters porta hepatis
    - branches become part of portal triads
    - blood enters haptic sinusoids & supplies O2 to hepatocytes
  2. hepatic portal vein carries nutrient rich deoxygenated blood from digestive tract
  3. blood is hepatic sinusoids picks up processed molecules & waste products from hepatocytes
  4. sinusoids empty into central veins
  5. bile is produced by hepatocytes in hepatic cords.
  6. hepatic duct branches converge to form left & right hepatic ducts
67
Q

where is bile made ?

A

liver.

does not contain digestive enzymes
does neutralize stomach acid & emulsify lipids

68
Q

components of bile

A

Alkaline solutions that include:
1. bile salts- emulsify lipids– needed for 2. digestion b lipases
3. bile pigments- green/ yellow/ brown contribute to coloration of feces & urine
4. cholesterol
5. lipids
6. lipid soluble hormones
7. lecithin ( mixture of phospholipids)

Does neutralize stomach acid & empulsify lipids.

69
Q

storage of nutrients

A

hepatocytes can store nutrients

glucose: can remove glucose from the blood & store in the form of glycogen

helps maintain blood glucose levels within narrow limits

hepatocytes also store lipids, vitamins, copper,
& iron

storage is usually short term & amount fluctuates daily.

70
Q

processing of nutrients

A

hepatocytes can convert some ingested nutrients to those that are needed by the body

71
Q

liver is a major site of what synthesis ?

A

cholesterol synthesis

72
Q

functions to store & concentrate bile

A

Gallbladder

73
Q

Gallbladder

A

contractions of smooth muscle in wall of gallbladder cause bile release into small intestine.

stimulated by hormone cholecystokinin (released by duodenum after a meal high in fatty acids & peptides)

gallstones are insoluble aggregates, often including excess cholestrol.

formed in gallbladder but can pass into & block cystic duct (prevent flow of bile) and possibly the pancreatic duct.

74
Q

includes endocrine & exocrine functions

A

pancreas

75
Q

exocrine secretions (pancreatic juices) flow to

A

small intestine a converging ducts.

merge into main pancreatic duct.

joins common bile duct at hepatopancreatic ampulla.

empties into duodenum at major duodenal papilla
controlled by hepatopancreatic ampullae sphincter.

76
Q

components of exocrine secretions/ pancreatic juice.

A

include:

  1. aqueous component
    - rich in bicarbonte ions (HCO3) which neutralizes chyme
    - stops pepsin digestion
    - required for pancreatic enzymes to function.
  2. enzymatic component includes:
  • Pancreatic proteases (proteins)
  • lipases (lipids into fatty acids & monoglycerides)
  • amylases (polysaccharides)
  • deoxyribonucleases(DNA)
  • Ribonucleases(RNA)
77
Q

Types of mixing & propulsive movements

A
  1. Swallowing– moves a bolus from oral cavity to esophagus.
  2. Peristalsis- peristalic waves include a wave of relaxation of circular muscles in front of the mass of food followed by a contraction behind the mass of food.
  3. Mass movements- contractions that move material in distal large intestine to anus.

Mixing movement of food in a back and forth manner.

  1. mixing waves - gentle contractions in stomach- churn food with gastric secretions.
  2. segmental contractions- mix food with digestive secretions in small intestine.

segments of small intestine alternate between contraction & relaxation, spreading material in both directions.

78
Q

What is the difference between mechanical & chemical digestion ?

A

Mechanical- chewing breaks large food particles into smaller ones.
mastication & mixing ! (begins process of digestion. Decreases surface area of food. )

Chemical- digestive enzymes break covalent bonds in large organic molecules. enzymatic breakdown.

Ex. Carbs–> monosaccharids
proteins —> amino acids

79
Q

location for digestion of carbohydrate and major enzymes that digest them

A

Begins in oral cavity with Salivary amylase

resumes in small intestine with pancreatic amylase

80
Q

lipid/fat digestion location and major enzymes

A

lipase enzymes digest lipids into fatty acids & a glycerol

lingual lipase secreted in oral cavity & swallowed with food digest small amount of lipids in stomach.

Gastric Lipase secreted in stomach– also digest small amounts.

most lipids are digested in small intestine by pancreatic lipases.

pancreatic lipases require bile salts.

81
Q

location for digestion of protein and major enzymes

A

Digestion of protein begins in stomach with pepsin.

Pancreatic proteases continues protein digestion in small intestine.

digestion is completed by specific peptidases bound to microvilli in small intestine.

82
Q

anatomy of the kidney

A

cortex- outer kidney (where fluid from blood begins to be formed into urine)

medulla- inner renal pyramids.

pyramids are made of tubules that process filtrate

pyramids terminate at renal papillar, where urine is passed into a minor calyx

minor calyx, major calyx then renal pelvis

renal pelvis narrows into tube, called the ureter, which take urinary from the kidney to the urinary bladder.

83
Q

nephron structure

A

The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney
* ~1 million nephrons/kidney
* Major nephron regions include:
1. Renal corpuscle consisting of:
* Glomerulus- ball of capillaries
* Bowman’s capsule/Glomerular
capsule- surrounds glomerulus, filters
blood
2. Proximal convoluted tubule- returns some
substances to blood
3. Nephron loop (Loop of Henle)- conserves
water & solutes
4. Distal Tubule
* Connects to a collecting duct, which drains
multiple nephrons…
* into a papillary duct, which drains
several collecting ducts, and empties into
a minor calyx

84
Q

two types of nephrons and the differences between them

A

Cortical nephrons-
shorter nephron loops,
located mostly in cortex

Juxtamedullary
nephrons- nephron loops
extend deep into medulla 15% of nephrons

85
Q

locations in the kidney for each part of the nephron

A

Renal Corpuscle:
Location: Located in the renal cortex, the outer region of the kidney.
Components: The renal corpuscle consists of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule.

Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT):
Location: The PCT is located in the renal cortex, extending from Bowman’s capsule.
Course: It descends from the renal corpuscle (Bowman’s capsule) and then makes a U-turn to ascend back towards the cortex.

Loop of Henle:
Location: Parts of the loop of Henle are located in both the renal cortex and the renal medulla, the inner region of the kidney.
Descending Limb: Descends from the cortex into the medulla.
Ascending Limb: Ascends from the medulla back into the cortex.
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT):
Location: The DCT is located primarily in the renal cortex.
Course: It is situated after the loop of Henle, as the tubule returns to the cortex.
Collecting Duct:
Location: The collecting ducts extend from the cortex through the medulla to the renal papilla, which is the tip of the renal pyramid in the medulla.

86
Q

flow of filtrate through nephron

A

Filtrate is formed in the renal corpuscle.
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): Reabsorption of water and nutrients.
Loop of Henle: Concentration gradient established.
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT): Further reabsorption and secretion.
Collecting Duct: Final adjustments and concentration of urine.
Urine exits via the ureter, bladder, and urethra.

87
Q

flow of blood through kidney To Glomerulus:

A
  • Renal artery
  • Segmental arteries (not numbered in image- take blood to portions
    of kidney)
  • Interlobar arteries- pass between pyramids
  • Arcuate arteries- arch between cortex & medulla
  • Cortical radiate arteries- extend into cortex
  • Afferent arterioles
  • Glomerular Capillaries
88
Q

flow of blood through kidney Away from Glomerulus:

A
  • Glomerular capillaries
  • Efferent arteriole
  • Peritubular capillaries- surround proximal convoluted tubules, distal
    convoluted tubules & loop of Henle
  • Vasa Recta- specialized portions of peritubular capillaries that extend deep
    into the medulla of kidney & surround nephron loops & collecting ducts
  • Cortical radiate vein
  • Arcuate vein
  • Interlobar vein
  • Renal vein
    FLOW OF BLOOD THROUGH KIDNEY, CONT.
89
Q

what is filtration?

A

creates filtrate, occurs in renal corpuscle.

blood pressure in glomerulus forces fluid & small molecules into bowman’s capsule

90
Q

what is reabsorption ?

A

movement of H2O & some molecules back from filtrate into pertubular capillaries.

occurs mostly in PCT, nephron loop, collecting duct

91
Q

what is secretion?

A

specialized cells transport solutes from blood to filtrate.

some were not initially passed through the filtration membrane

occurs mostly in DCT.

92
Q

3 pressure that affect filtration

A

1) Golmerular capillary pressure- pressure inside glomerular capillaries.

outward pressure- pushes fluid out of blood into glomerular capsule.

2) Capsular hydrostatic pressure- pressure from filtrate in capsular space.

inward pressure- opposes filtration.
(STRONGEST PRESSURE)

3)Blood colloid osmotic pressure- osmotic pressure due to high concentration of proteins in plasma.

inward pressure- opposes filtration.

93
Q

3 structural components of filtration membrane

A

1) fenestrated capillaries
- most plasma proteins are too large to pass.

2)basement membrane
-negative charged glycoproteins are present on basement membrane & podocytes.

3) podocytes

94
Q

Characteristics of the filtration membrane that make it suited for filter the blood

A

selectivity - allows certain substances to pass through based on their size and charge.
porosity-small molecules pass by easily
permeability- preamable to water, ions, amino acids.

95
Q

4 mechanisms that regulate glomerular filtration rate & how they affect Glomerular Filtration Rate

A

1) Myogenic mechanism- smooth muscle in walls of afferent & efferent arterioles can detect stretch

2) Tubuloglomerular feedback- matches filtrate flow past macula dense cells to GFR.

3) hormonal regulation- when mean arterial pressure is low, juxtaglomerular cells secrete the anzyme renin.

4) neuronal regulation- if sympathetic NS stimulation is very high, mean arterial pressure can drop

96
Q

Name of M/F gametes & gonads

A

gametogenesis is the production of gametes.

F gamete: Ovum (egg)
M gamete: Sperm

GONADS
F gonads: ovaries
M gonads: testes

97
Q

of chromosomes present in somatic (body) cells and in gametes.

A

46 chromosomes present in somatic

gametes have 23

98
Q

stages of meiosis

A

meiosis- a special type of cell division specialized for producing gametes. reduces chromosome # by half.

Meiosis I- seperates homologous chromosomes

meiosis II - seperates sister chromatids

99
Q

inheritance of sex chromosomes (X & Y)

A

It is important for each sex cell to have half the diploid number of
chromosomes because…
* Fertilization- fusion of two gametes
* Restores the diploid # of chromosomes, 46
* Sex of baby is determined by sperm cell that fertilizes ovum
* If the sperm carries an X sex chromosome, baby is female
* If the sperm carries a Y sex chromosome, baby is male

100
Q

anatomy of male reproductive system

A

sperm develop in testes & epididymides

Sperm travel into body cavity
through ducta deferentia & join
ducts from seminal vesicles,
forming ampulla
* Extensions of ampullae called
ejaculatory ducts, pass into
prostate
* Empty into urethra
* Urethra begins in
prostate & continues out
of body wall, through
penis

101
Q

muscles that alter temperature of the testes

A

Dartos muscle (smooth muscle)
* Dartos muscle contracts in cold temperatures
* Skin becomes firm, wrinkled, reduces in
size
* Cremaster muscles- extensions of abdominal
muscles into scrotum
* Also contract in cold, pull testes nearer body
* Both muscles relax in warmer temps
* Sperm cells are very temperature-sensitive; do
not develop normally if temperature varies
considerably

102
Q

accessory organs that contribute to semen and the characteristics of their secretions.

A

seminal vesicles - Secretions are thick, mucous-like, with
several functions, including:
1. Nourishment of sperm cells- fructose, citric
acid, other nutrients
2. Coagulation of semen- secretions contain
fibrinogen (enables weak coagulation of
semen after ejaculation)
3. Movement of sperm cells- prostaglandins
in secretions stimulate uterine
contractions; helps transport sperm
through F reproductive tract

103
Q

accessory organs that contribute to semen and the characteristics of their secretions pt 2

A

Prostate gland - ecretes prostatic fluid which empties into prostatic
urethra:
* Thin, milky, alkaline secretion- helps neutralize
acidic urethra & acidic secretions of testes &
vagina
* Secretions also help with coagulation: contain
clotting factors that convert fibrinogen to fibrin
* Creates sticky mass of semen for a few
minutes after ejaculation
* Then, fibrinolysin (also secreted by
prostate) causes mass to dissolve
* Releases sperm to make their way
through female reproductive tract

104
Q

accessory organs that contribute to semen and the characteristics of their secretions pt 3

A

Bulbourethral glands -Compound mucous gland- empties into
spongy urethra
* Alkaline, mucous secretion produced &
released just prior to ejaculation
* 2 major functions:
1. Lubrication: lubricates urethra & provides
small amount of lubrication during
intercourse
2. Neutralizing acidity: Neutralizes acidic fluids
of spongy urethra & reduces vaginal acidity

105
Q

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
ACCESSORY GLANDS

A

Accessory glands are exocrine glands that secrete
material into ducts of M reproductive tract
* Include:
* Seminal vesicles
* Prostate gland
* Bulbourethral glands

106
Q

Erectile tissues of the penis

A

Penis Has 3 columns of erectile tissue
* Erectile tissue is comprised of connective
tissue & smooth muscle with many sinusoids
that become engorged with blood
* Enables erection- penis enlarges &
becomes firm
* 3 Erectile tissue columns are:
* 2 Corpus Cavernosa (dorsal, lateral sides of
penis)
* 1 Corpus Spongiosum (ventral side of penis)

107
Q

seminal fluids pass through

A

Epididymis - where they mature and gain motility
ductus deferens -
ejaculatory duct-
urethra -

108
Q

Descent of the testes & structures that form as testes descend

A

Between 7-9 months development, testes move through inguinal canals into scrotum, preceded by the process vaginalis

between birth & childhood superior pat of process vaginalis degenerates & inferior part remains as small closed sac called tunica vaginalis - serous membrane that surrounds most of the testis secretes small amount of fluid allows testes to move without friction in scrotum.

109
Q

stage of spermatogenesis

A

Spermatogenesis is sperm development.

begins when primary spermatocytes divide

meiosis 1 results in 2 secondary spermatocytes

meiosis II each secondary spermatocyte divides, seperating sister chromatids.

produce spermatids

each spermaid undergoes spermiogensis to form a mature sperm cell

A&P cardio system part 2 (6 decks)

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