Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Human Anatomy and Phys Sp23 > exam 4 > Flashcards

exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

components of the urinary system

A

kidneys
ureters
bladder
urethra

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

function of the kidneys

A

filter blood
remove waste products and convert filtrate into urine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

ureters

A

transport urine
from kidneys to urinary bladder

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

bladder

A

expandable sac
stores as much as 1L urine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

urethra

A

eliminates urine from body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

right kidney is slightly _______

A

inferior to larger liver lobe

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

other functions of kidney

A

-regulation of ion levels and acid-base balance
- production and release of erythropoietin
- regulation of blood pressure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

regulation of ion levels and acid-base balance

A

helps control blood’s inorganic ion balance
e.g., Na+, K+, Ca2+
aids in maintaining acid-bas balance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

production and release of erythropoietin

A

indirectly measures oxygen level of blood
secretes erythropoietin (EPO) in response to low blood oxygen
- stimulates red bone marrow to increase rate of erythrocyte production
- erythrocytes transport oxygen from lungs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

regulation of blood pressure

A

alters amount of fluid lost in urine (helps regulate blood volume)
releases renin enzyme (required for production of angiotensin II, hormone results in increased blood pressure)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

the kidney is responsible for

A

healthy blood

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

characteristics of the kidney

A

kidneys are two symmetrical, bean-shaped organs
size of hand to second knuckle
concave medial border, hilum
lateral border convex
adrenal gland rests on superior aspect of kidney

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

hilum

A

where vessels, nerves, and ureter connect to kidney

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

medullary area

A

contains renal columns that help anchor medullary tissue as well as subdivide into renal pyramids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

renal sinuses

A

minor and major calyx

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

minor calyx

A

first region that is closest to the renal pyramid and runs into major calyx

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

major calyx

A

has connection between minor calyx and renal pelvis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

striations are presented as a result of

A

how collecting ducts and nephron limbs are located and sown on kidneys

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

structures of the kidney

A

nephrons
collecting tubules
collecting ducts

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

nephron

A
  • microscopic functional filtration unit of kidney
  • consists of renal corpuscle and renal tubule
  • all of corpuscle and most of tubules reside in cortex
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

glomerular capsule contains visceral and parietal layer but is not a…

A

serous membrane

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

fluid and solutes within the kidney are going to

A

pass through glomerulus and connect in capsular space

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

glomerular capsule

A

Bowman’s capsule

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

nephron loop

A

“Loop of Henle”
tubular fluid descends down into medullary region where it turns around and goes back into cortex

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

main components of nephron loop

A

renal corpuscle
proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
nephron loop
distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

renal corpuscle is composed of

A

glomerulus
capsular space

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

two types of nephron

A

cortical nephron
juxtamedullary nephron

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

nephron loop causes

A

high salt concentration in medullary tissue which serves osmotic draw to send it into the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

nephron drainage

A
  • nephrons drain into a collecting tubule (each kidney contains thousands, cuboidal-shaped cells)
  • then empties into larger collecting ducts (tall columnar cells)
  • empty into papillary duct
  • both collecting tubules and collecting ducts project towards renal papilla
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

juxtaglomerular apparatus (JG)

A
  • helps regulate blood filtrate formation, systemic blood pressure
  • primary components: granular cells, macula densa cells
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

granular cells

A
  • modified smooth muscle cells of afferent arteriole
  • located near entrance to renal corpuscle
  • contract when stimulated by stretch sympathetic stimulation
  • synthesize, store, and release renin
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

macula densa

A
  • modified epithelial cells in wall of DCT
  • located on tubule side next to afferent arteriole
  • detect changes in NaCl (salt) concentration of fluid in lumen of DCT
  • signal granular cells to release renin through paracrine stimulation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

granular cells are responsible for

A

stretching of afferent arteriole increasing or decreasing blood flow

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

blood flow through kidneys

A
  • 20%-25% of resting cardiac output
  • filtrate formed when blood flows through glomerulus
  • some components of plasma enter capsular space
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

two parents of flow in kidneys

A

flow of blood into and out of the kidney
flow of filtrate, tubular fluid, urine through the nephron and other urinary structures

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

blood supply to kidney flow

A

renal artery
segmental artery
interlobar artery
arcuate artery
interlobular artery
afferent arteriole
glomerulus
efferent arteriole
peritubular capillaries and vasa recta
interlobular vein
arcuate vein
interlobar vein
renal vein

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

peritubular capillaries are associated with

A

convoluted tubules

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

vasa recta is associated with

A

nephron loop

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

filtrate

A
  • blood flows through glomerulus where water and solutes are filtered from blood plasma
  • moves across wall of glomerular capillaries and into capsular space
    forms filtrate
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

substances that transport fluid through urinary system

A

filtrate
1. capsular space
tubular fluid
2. proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
3. descending limb of nephron loop
4. ascending limb of nephron loop
5. distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
6. collecting tubules
7. collecting duct
urine
8. papillary duct
9. minor calyx
10. major calyx
11. renal pelivs
12. ureter
13. bladder
14. urethra

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

glomerular filtration

A

the movement of substances from the blood within the glomerulus into the capsular space

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

tubular reabsorption

A

the movement of substances from the tubular fluid back into the blood

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

tubular secretion

A

the movement of substances from the blood into the tubular space
active transport

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

process of urine formation

A
  1. glomerular filtration
  2. tubular reabsorption
  3. tubular secretion
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

filtration membrane

A

refers to the structures that materials need to pass through

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

filtration membrane is composed of

A

endothelium of fenestrated capillary
basement membrane (thin layer of glycoproteins)
filtration slits between adjacent podocytes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

components of visceral layer of glomerular capsule

A

pedicels
filtration slits (have openings in addition to normal routes)
podocytes (have slits between adjacent podocytes)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

filtrate includes

A

water, glucose, amino acids, ions, urea, some hormones, vitamins B and C, ketones, and very small amounts of protein

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

what stays in the blood when becoming filtrate

A

formed elements and proteins
- endothelium blocks formed elements
- basement membrane blocks large proteins
- filtration slits block small proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

net filtration pressure

A

hydrostatic pressure of blood in glomerulus
opposing pressure
- blood osmotic pressure (oncotic pressure)
- fluid pressure in capsular space of renal corpuscle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

values in net filtration pressure in glomerular filtration

A

HPg - (OP +HPc) = NFP
60 mm Hg - (32 mmHg + 18mmHg) = NFP
60mmHg - 50mmHg = 10 mmHg
typical numbers

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

glomerular filtration rate (GFR)

A
  • GFR is the volume of fluid filtered from the glomerular capillaries into the capsular space per unit time (typically one minute)
  • tightly regulared
  • helps kidney control urine production based on physiologic conditions (hydration status)
  • influenced by changing lumen diameter of afferent arteriole and altering surface area of filtration membrane
  • process within kidney (intrinsic controls) external to kidney (extrinsic controls)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

what effect would dehydration have on GFR and urine production

A

GFR would decrease if dehydrated therefore decreasing urine output

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

change in luminal diameter of afferent arteriole and GFR

A

if arteriole dilates (widens) GFR increases
if arteriole compresses (shrinks) GFR decreases

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

alteration of surface area and GFR

A

increase in surface area of filtration membrane increases GFR
decrease in surface area of filtration membrane decreases GFR

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

intrinsic controls of kidney

A

self regulating mechanisms

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

extrinsic controls of kidney

A

influence GFR but not in kidney
endocrine and nervous system influence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

renal autoregulation

A

intrinsic controls
intrinsic ability of kidney to maintain constant glomerular blood pressure an thus GFR despite changes in systemic arterial pressure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

renal autoregulation serves to

A

maintain a stable and constant glomerular BP and filtration rate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

if something causes BP to elevate you would expect

A

glomerular in BP to elevate as well but renal autoregulation prevents this from happening

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

myogenic response

A

reflex response of afferent arteriole in response to changes in blood pressure (contraction or relaxation of smooth muscle of afferent arteriole)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

decreased BP, less stretch of smooth muscle in arteriole causes

A

smooth muscle cells to relax and vessels to dilate which allows for
- more blood into glomerulus
- compensates for lower systemic pressure
GFR remains normal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

increased BP, more stretch of smooth muscle in arteriole causes

A

smooth muscle cells to contract, vessels to constrict which allows for
- less blood into glomerulus
which compensates for greater systemic pressure and GFR remaining normal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

decreasing GFR through sympathetic stimulation

A
  1. stimulus: stressor/emergency
  2. sympathetic stimulation of kidneys
    - vasoconstriction of afferent and efferent arterioles resulting in decreased blood flow to glomerulus
    - granular cells of JG apparatus release renin which causes an increase in angiotensin II production leading to contraction of mesangeal cells resulting in decreased filtration rate at glomerulus
  3. overall:
    - decrease in GFR
    - decrease in urine production
    - retain fluid
    maintain blood volume
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

goal is not to maintain but change

A

GFR depending on physiological needs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

increasing GFR through atrial natriuretic peptide

A
  1. stimulus: increase in blood volume or blood pressure
  2. atrial wall stretches
  3. ANP released by heart
    - vasodilation of afferent arteriole resulting in increased blood flow to glomerulus
    - renin release from granular cells of JG apparatus is inhibited causing a decrease in angiotensin II production leading to relaxation of mesangial cells causing an increased filtration rate at glomerulus
  4. overall:
    - increase in GFR
    - increase in urine production
    - loss of additional fluid
    - decrease in blood volume
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

maintaining GFR

A

renal auto regulation maintains GFR despite changes in systemic BP:
- decreased systemic BP results in vasodilation of afferent arteriole
- increased systemic BP results in vasoconstriction of afferent arteriole

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

decreasing GFR

A

sympathetic division decreases GFR by
- afferent arteriole vasoconstriction
- triggering mesangial cells to contract, which decreases filtration surface area
urine production is decreased which helps maintain blood volume

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

increasing GFR

A

ANP increases GFR by
- afferent arteriole vasodilation
- triggering mesangial cells to relax which increases filtration surface area
urine production is increased which decreases blood volume

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

nutrient reabsorption

A

some substances 100% reabsorbed
two major classes: nutrients and filtered plasma proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

nutrients are normally completely reabsorbed in

A

proximal convoluted tubule
- each nutrient has its own specific transport proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

glucose reabsorption

A
  1. glucose is transported from tubular fluid into tubule cell of PCT by secondary active transport UP its concentration gradient
    - levels of Na+ much higher than glucose levels so active transport is needed
    - sodium moves down into the tubular fluid as glucose enters into the tubular cell
  2. glucose diffuses down its concentration gradient by facilitated diffusion
    - high concentration for glucose into the cell and low glucose in interstitial fluid allows for passive movement of glucose out of the cell with aid of transport protein (facilitated diffusion)
  3. glucose is reabsorbed into the blood
    - once glucose is in interstitial fluid, it is 100% reabsorbed as it continues along the length of PCT
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

most transport proteins are

A

not freely filtered due to size and charge
some small and medium sized proteins may appear in filtrate
small amounts of large proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

proteins are transported from

A

tubular fluid in PCT back into blood
protein moves across the luminal membrane of cell by:
- pinocytosis
- receptor-mediated endocytosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

pinocytosis

A

protein enters into divots in plasma membrane which closes off and forms a vesicle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

receptor mediated endocytosis

A

specific receptors on given proteins bind to sepcific receptor and pinch off as vesicle having proteins within the vesicle where they dissolve within

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

sodium reabsorption is regulated by

A

hormones near end of tubule
- aldosterone and ANP
- dietary intake of Na+ varies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

Na+/K+ pumps are embedded in

A

the basolateral membrane

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

Na+/K+ pumps help

A

keep Na+ relatively low within tubule cells
pumps require substantial energy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

aldosterone and Na+ reabsorption

A
  • steroid hormone produced by adrenal cortex
  • stimulates protein synthesis of Na+ channels and Na+/K+ pumps
  • embedded in plasma membranes of principal cells
  • increase in Na+ reabsorption
  • water follows by osmosis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
81
Q

atrial natriuretic peptide and Na+ reabsorption

A
  • inhibits reabsorption of Na+ primarily in the collecting ducts
  • inhibits release of aldosterone
  • more Na+ and water excreted in urine
  • increases GFR
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
82
Q

if there is less aldosterone, in turn there will be

A

less Na+ channels and pumps causing less Na+ to be reabsorbed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
83
Q

sodium reabsorption of Na+ in PCT

A
  1. Na+ diffuses down concentration gradient by facilitated diffusion from tubular fluid into tubule cells
    - Na+ transport protein allows Na+ to move down concentration gradient
  2. Na+ is moved up its concentration gradient by active transport from tubule cell into interstitial fluid
  3. from interstitial fluid about 65% of Na+ is reabsorbed into the blood
    - process continues as fluid proceeds through nephron loop
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
84
Q

35% of Na+ remains in

A

tubular fluid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
85
Q

sodium reabsorption in lumen of DCT, CT, or CD

A

WHERE FINE TUNING OCCURS
- when tubular fluid reaches this part, 98% of Na+ will be absorbed
- tubular fluid flows down
1. High concentration of Na+ in tubular fluid is passively diffused down concentration gradient into principal cells through Na+ channels
2. Na+/K+ pumps lining the principal cells move K+ up its concentration gradient into the principal cells from interstitial fluid while moving the low Na+ from principal cells into interstitial fluid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
86
Q

principal cells

A

have receptors for aldosterone which is released from adrenal cortex which is stimulated by low blood Na+

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
87
Q

the effect of binding of aldosterone on Na+ reabsorption

A

both the number of Na+ channels and Na+/K+ pumps resulting in an increase in Na+ reabsorption

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
88
Q

water reabsorption

A
  • 180L filtered daily; all but 1.5 L reabsorbed
  • tubule permeability varies along its length
  • 65% reabsorbed in PCT
  • aquaporins constant number
  • water follows Na+ by osmosis, obligatory water reabsorption
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
89
Q

10% of filtered water is reabsorbed in the

A

nephron loop

90
Q

water reabsorption within distal convoluted tubule, collecting tubules, and ducts

A
  • water reabsorption controlled by aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone
  • aldosterone increases Na+/K+ pumps and Na+ channels
  • therefore, increases water reabsorption
91
Q

antidiuretic hormone and water reabsorption

A

ADH binds to principal cells which
- increases migration of vesicles containing aquaporins to membrane
- adds channels to increase water reabsorption

92
Q

concentration gradient within interstitial fluid

A
  • independent of Na+ reabsorption
  • water reabsorption regulated by ADH near end of tubule
  • tubular reabsorption = facultative water reabsorption (dependent on hydration status)
93
Q

water reabsorption steps

A
  • ADH causes principal cells to increase number of aquaporins allowing for more passageways to get water out of tubule and into blood
  • the driving force for this is high concentration of salts in interstitial fluid to draw water down its concentration gradient
  • serves to raise BP
94
Q

antidiuretic hormone and water reabsorption

A
  • increases water reabsorption from tubular fluid into blood
  • results in smaller volume of more concentrated urine
  • elevated levels during dehydration (urine noticeably darker)
  • with decrease, urine is less concentrated
  • urine range 1200 mOsm to 50 mOsm
95
Q

which hormone contributes to concentration of urine

A

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

96
Q

movement of potassium

A
  • almost all of potassium is reaborbed
  • both reabsorbed and secreted
  • under the influence of aldosterone (increases the secretion of K+ into the tubular fluid
97
Q

low sodium triggers

A

aldosterone release

98
Q

dehydration releases

A

aldosterone

99
Q

60-80% of K+ is reabsorbed in the

A

PCT

100
Q

10-20% of K+ is reabsorbed in th

A

nephron loop

101
Q

regulated K+ reabsorption and secretion occurs in

A

collecting tubules

102
Q

type A intercalated cells (of collecting duct)

A

cells are interspersed around other cells in collecting duct
reabsorb K+ continuously
whatever K+ that enters collecting duct is reabsorbed by type A intercalated cells

103
Q

principal cells of collecting duct

A

vary K+ secretion depending upon aldosterone levels

104
Q

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

A
  • regulates excretion of calcium(Ca2+) and phosphate (PO43-)
  • inhibits phosphate reabsorption in PCT
  • stimulates calcium reabsorption in DCT
  • less phosphate available to form calcium phosphate
  • calcium deposition in bone decreased
  • calcium blood levels increased
105
Q

calcium ion and phosphate ion reabsorption

A
  • PTH inhibits reabsorption of PO43- in PCT
  • PTH stimulates reabsorption of Ca2+ in DCT
  • Result: increased PO43- lost in urine
106
Q

PTH acts in DCT to

A

bring more calcium to blood
- corrects hypercalcemia

107
Q

pH of urine and blood is regulated in

A

collecting tubules

108
Q

if acidic blood, then

A

synthesized HCO3- (bicarbonate) reabsorbed into the blood
- H+ excreted within filtrate by type A intercalated cells
- increased blood pH and decrease urine pH
goal is to reabsorb bicarbonate ions into blood and give off H+ to lower the pH into the tubular fluid

109
Q

if alkaline blood, then

A
  • type B intercalated cells are active
  • secrete HCO3- and reabsorb H+
  • lower blood pH and increase urine pH
    goal is to get rid of bicarbonate into tubular fluid and reabsorb H+ into blood
110
Q

80-90% of HCO3- is reclaimed in

A

PCT

111
Q

10-20% of HCO3- is reclaimed in

A

nephron loop

112
Q

regulation of HCO3- and H+ reabsorption and secretion occurs in

A

collecting tubules

113
Q

urinary system prevents accumulation of

A

1) metabolic waste
2) various hormones and metabolites
3) foreign substances

114
Q

main nitrogenous waste products

A

urea
uric acid
creatinine

115
Q

urea

A

molecule produced from protein breakdown

116
Q

uric acid

A

produced from nucleic acid breakdown in liver

117
Q

creatinine

A

produced from creatine metabolism in muscle

118
Q

establishing concentration gradient

A
  • present in interstitial fluid surrounding nephron
  • established by various solutes (Na+ Cl-, progressive increase in concentration from cortex into medulla)
  • exerts osmotic pull to move water into interstitial fluid (when ADH is present)
119
Q

countercurrent multiplier

A
  • establishes high solute concentration in interstitial fluid
  • thick region of nephron loop is impermeable to water but actively transports NaCl out of the tubular fluid into the interstitial space so there is now an increase in salt concentration in interstitial fluid
  • tubular fluid enters into PCT starts at 300 mOsm and as it descends this area is permeable to water but not to salt so water is going to be osmotically drawn into interstitial fluid from tubular fluid due to high salt concentration
120
Q

countercurrent exchange

A
  • MAITAINS concentration gradient
  • involves vasa recta
  • capillary walls are permeable so as blood flow descends down solute concentration is increasing in blood
  • osmotic flow of water out of the cell
  • NaCl is going to flow into capillaries
  • as vasa recta is moving up there is a lesser concentration of salt in blood as it is drawn out and water is drawn back into the blood which brings us back to regular plasma concentration
121
Q

countercurrent multiplier vs countercurrent exchange

A

multiplier establishs the gradients and the exchanges maintains the gradient

122
Q

urea recycling

A
  • help concentrating process in interstitial fluid
  • recycled urea (1/2 of solutes of interstitial fluid gradient)
  • urea removed from tubular fluid in collecting duct by uniporters
  • diffuses back into tubular fluid in thin segment of ascending limb
  • remains within tubular fluid until it reaches collecting duct
  • urea cycled between collecting duct and nephron loop
123
Q

proximal convoluted tubule

A
  • site for majority of reabsorption
    1. reabsorption: the following move from PCT into blood
  • 100% of nutrients
  • majority of water
  • majority of ions
  • PO43- reabsorption is inhibited by PTH
    2. secretion: the following move from blood into PCT
  • some drugs
  • nitrogenous wastes
124
Q

nephron loop and vasa recta

A
  • site of countercurrent multiplier and countercurrent exchange
  • continues reabsorption of water and ions that begins in PCT
  • nephron loops of juxtamedullary nephrons establish interstitial fluid concentration gradient (along w/ urea recycling) for reabsorption of water induced by ADH
125
Q

distal convoluted tubule, collecting tubule, and collecting duct are sites of

A

regulation!
- Na+ reabsorption is regulated by aldosterone and ANP
- water reabsorption is regulated by aldosterone and ADH
- amount of K+ secreted into the tubular fluid is dependent upon both intercalated cells and principal cells
- Ca2+ reabsorption is increased by PTH
- pH is regulated by intercalated cells
(type A cells secrete H+ (acid) and retain base (HCO3-) while type B cells secrete base and retain acid)

126
Q

renal plasma clearance test

A
  • a means of assessing kidney function
  • measures volume of plasma cleared of substance in given time (typically one minute)
127
Q

RPC with substance neither absorbed or secreted

A

clearance would = GFR (125 ml/min)
e.g., inulin

128
Q

RPC with reabsorbed substance

A

clearance is lower than GFR
glucose (0ml/min)

129
Q

if substance filtered and secreted

A

clearance is higher than GFR
creatinine (140ml/min)

130
Q

urine

A

product of filtered and processed blood plasma
sterile unless contaminated with microbes in kidney or urinary tract
urinalysis is common diagnostic test

131
Q

composition of urine

A

95% water
solutes only make 5% of urine

132
Q

volume of urine

A

inverse relationship between urine volume and concentration
if patient says they are urinating too often, can lead to inability for kidneys concentrating urine

133
Q

specific gravity of urine

A

diluted and watery - dark highly concentrated
1.005-1.030
no units because they are relative numbers

134
Q

pH of urine

A

most humans urine is about pH of 6
related to diet
most of us have high protein diet that renders urine around pH 6
vegetarians usually have a more alkaline urine
UTI can cause decrease in H+ in urine

135
Q

color of urine

A

indicative of health issues
red brown - myoglobin in urine

136
Q

turbidity of urine

A

cloudiness
should be clear
bacterial organisms, WBCs, persent in urine

137
Q

smell

A

ketones insert fruity odor to urine

138
Q

ureters

A
  • long epithelial lined fibromuscular tubes
  • conduct urine from kidneys to urinary bladder
  • originate from renal pelvis as it exits hilum of kidney
  • enter wall of base of urinary bladder
139
Q

ureter walls composed of 3 tunics

A

1 mucosa
2 muscularis
3 adventita

140
Q

muscosal folds on mucosal layer of ureters allow for

A

expansion to accomodate urine flow

141
Q

muscularis

A

muscle tissue of ureter
ability to distend to accommodate increase urine flow

142
Q

adventita

A

layer of protective CT

143
Q

trigone

A

boundaries are indicated by imaginary lines between ureter openings and internal urethral sphincter

144
Q

internal urethral sphincter

A

smooth
involuntary control
circular arangment of muscle fibers it closes off of so urine cannot be expelled

145
Q

detrusor muscle encompasses

A

all 3 layers in wall of bladder

146
Q

external urethral sphincter in female urethra

A

embedded within urogenital diaphragm which is a span of muscle that lies against pelvis
EUS is under conscious control to allow or not allow urine flow

147
Q

male urethra

A

longer as it extends length of penis
prostatic, membranous, and spongy urethra

148
Q

micturition

A

expulsion of urine from bladder
associated with 2 reflexes
- storage reflex and micturition reflex
- regulated by sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system

149
Q

storage reflex

A
  • continuous sympathetic stimulation
  • causes relaxation of detrusor to accomodate urine
  • stimulates contraction of internal urethral sphincter
  • so urine retained in bladder
150
Q

external urethral sphincter and storage reflex

A

continuously stimulated by pudendal nerve to remain contracted

151
Q

micturition reflex

A

1) volume of urine in bladder about 200-300mL
- bladder distended and baroreceptors activated in bladder wall
2) visceral sensory neurons signaled by baroreceptors
- stimulate micturition center in pons
3) micturition center
- increases nerve signals down spinal cord through pelvic splanchnic nerves
4) parasympathetic stimulation
- causes detrusor muscles to contract
- causes internal urethral sphincter to relax

152
Q

conscious control of urination

A

initiated from cerebral cortex through reduced stimulation by pudendal nerve
- causes relaxation of external urethral sphincter
- facilitated by voluntary contraction of abdominal and expiratory muscles (Valsalva maneuver)

can empty bladder prior to micturition reflex
- contract abdominal muscles to compress bladder
- initiates micturition reflex by stimulating stretch receptors

153
Q

fluid in our body =

A

intracellular and extracellular

154
Q

intracellular fluid (ICF)

A

fluid within our cells
two-thirds of total body fluid
enclosed by plasma membrane (allows passage of some, but not all substances through it)

155
Q

extracellular fluid (ECF)

A

fluid outside our cells
includes interstitial fluid and blood plasma

156
Q

interstitial fluid composes

A

2/3 of ECF

157
Q

blood plasma

A

extracellular fluid within blood vessels
separated from interstitial fluid by capillary vessel wall (more permeable than plasma membrane)

158
Q

when drinking water

A

the blood plasma within capillary becomes hypotonic causing water to move out of capillary into interstitial fluid and into hypertonic intracellular fluid from original hypotonic blood plasma

159
Q

when dehydrated

A

solutes within blood plasma is increased so capillary is hypertonic causing the hypotonic intracellular fluid to push water outward by osmosis into interstitial fluid and into blood capillary

160
Q

metabolic water is generated in the body as a result of

A

metabolic processes
200 mL of total intake of water

161
Q

fluid intake includes

A
  • preformed water (drinking and food)
  • metabolic water
162
Q

fluid output includes

A
  • expired air
  • sweat
  • cutaneous transpiration
  • feces
  • urine (obligatory and facultative)
163
Q

obligatory loses include

A

expired air, sweat, cutaneous transpiration, feces, obligatory urine (must happen to dilute solutes in urine)

164
Q

facultative losses

A

facultative urine loss (according to circumstances)

165
Q

insensible losses

A

cant quantify (expired air, sweat, cutaneous transpiration)

166
Q

sensible losses

A

include feces and urine losses

167
Q

sodium balance

A
  • 135-145 mEq/L
  • get Na+ from diet
  • release Na+ from urine, feces, and sweat
  • hormones regulating Na+ concentration by altering loss of both Na+ and H2O in urine (aldosterone, ADH, ANP)
168
Q

sodium balance: aldosterone

A

retains Na+ and water
- maintains Na+ blood plasma concentration

169
Q

sodium balance: ADH

A

retains water
- decreases Na+ blood plasma concentration

170
Q

sodium balance: ANP

A

increases excretion of Na+ and H2O
- decreases Na+ blood plasma concentration

171
Q

increased sodium or decreased H2O effect on blood

A
  • most Na+ is found in ECF
  • decreased H2O or increased Na+ concentration would cause blood to be hypertonic causing water to osmotically flow into the blood from ICF
172
Q

decreased sodium or increased H2O effect on blood

A

increased H2O or decreased Na+ concentration causes solute concentration in the cells to be higher then in blood so water osmotically flows into the ICF from blood

173
Q

potassium balance

A
  • most important ion in ICF
  • 3.5-5.0 mEq/L
  • K+ intake from diet
  • K+ output from urine, feces, sweat
  • aldosterone helps regulate K+ blood plasma concentration by altering loss of K+ in urine
174
Q

aldosterone on K+ balance

A

causes K+ secretion by kidneys (and excretion in urine)
decreases K+ blood plasma concentration

175
Q

K+ distribution is dependent upon

A

K+ levels, H+ levels, and insulin

176
Q

maintaining normal K+ blood levels

A

if K+ in blood increases, K+ enters cells
if K+ in blood decreases, K+ exits cells and enters blood

177
Q

maintaining blood pH

A

if blood H+ ion increases, H+ enters cells and K+ exits cells
if blood H+ ion decreases, H+ exits cells and K+ enters cells

178
Q

maintaining normal blood K+ following a meal

A

insulin increases movement of both glucose and K+ into cells

179
Q

chloride ion (Cl-)

A
  • associated with Na+
  • follows Na+ by electrostatic interactions
  • regulated by same mechanisms
  • amount lost in urine dependent upon blood plasma Na+
  • most abundant anion in ECF
  • found in lumen of stomach as HCl
  • participates in chloride sift within erythrocytse
  • obtained in diet from table salt and processed foods
  • lost in sweat, stomach secretions, and urine
180
Q

calcium ion (Ca2+)

A
  • most abundant electrolyte in bone and teeth (99% of Ca2+ stored here)
  • moved by pumps out of cells into sarcoplasmic reticulum
  • prevents binding phosphate within cells and hardening
  • needed for muscle contraction and neurotransmitter release
  • participates in blood clotting
  • obtained from yogurt, milk, soy, cheese, sardines, green leafy vegetables
  • lost in urine, feces, and sweat
181
Q

calcium is regulated by

A

parathyroid hormone
- increases secretion of calcium

182
Q

phosphate ion (PO43-)

A
  • most abundant anion in ICF
  • 85% stored in bone and teeth as calcium phosphate
  • component of DNA, RNA, and phospholipids
  • intracellular buffer and urine buffer
  • most ionized (90%) in blood plasma, rest bound to proteins
  • regulated by many of same mechanisms as Ca2+
183
Q

most abundant anion in extracellular fluid

A

chloride

184
Q

most abundant electrolyte in bone and teeth

A

calcium

185
Q

most abundant anion in intracellular fluid

A

phosphate

186
Q

renin-angitensin system

A
  1. Stimulus:
    - Low blood pressure (detected by JG apparatus)
    - sympathetic division stimulation
  2. Receptor:
    - The JG apparatus responds to stimuli
  3. Control Center:
    - The JG apparatus releases renin enzyme into the blood
  4. Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II.
  5. Effectors: angiotensin II binds to effectors to cause-
    - vasoconstriction
    - decreased GFR
    - activation of thirst center
    - release fo ADH from posterior pituitary gland
    - release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex
  6. Net effect: blood pressure increases
187
Q

angiotensin II on systemic blood vessels

A

vasoconstriction in systemic blood vessels causing increase in BP

188
Q

angiotensin II on kidneys

A

decreased GFR leading to a decrease in urine output to maintain blood volume and blood pressure

189
Q

angiotensin II on hypothalamus

A
  • activation of thirst center to increase fluid intake causing a rise in BP and blood volume
  • release fo ADH from posterior pituitary gland which decreases urine output to maintain blood volume
190
Q

angiotensin II on adrenal cortex

A

release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex to maintain blood volume with decreased urine output

191
Q

Antidiuretic Hormone

A
  1. Stimulus
    - angiotensin II (produced with a decrease in BP)
    - sensory input from baroreceptors in heart and vessels detect low blood volume
    - chemoreceptors within hypothalamus detect increased blood osmolarity
  2. Recptor
    - the hypothalamus responds to stimuli
  3. Control Center
    - the hypothalamus stimulates the posterior pituitary gland to release ADH into the blood
  4. Effectors: ADH binds to effectors to cause-
    - activation of thirst center
    - increased water reabsorption
    - vasoconstriction
  5. Net Effect: Increased BP (with fluid intake); blood volume increases (with fluid intake); blood osmolarity decreases
192
Q

ADH effect on hypothalamus

A

activates thirst center causing increased fluid intake which increases blood volume and blood pressure

193
Q

ADH effect on kidneys

A

increases water reabsorption; decreases water lost in kidney to maintain blood volume and decreases blood osmolarity

194
Q

ADH effect on blood vessels

A

vasoconstriction occurs in high does of ADH
increases peripheral resistance and BP

195
Q

aldosterone

A
  1. Stimulus
    - angiotensin II (produced with a decrease in BP)
    - decreased Na+ blood plasma levels
    - increased K+ blood plasma levels
  2. Receptor
    - adrenal cortex responds to stimuli
  3. Control Center
    - the adrenal cortex releases aldosterone into the blood
  4. Effector
    - increases K+ secretion into tubular fluid (H+ can be substituted for K+ in condition of low pH)
  5. Net Effect: blood plasma Na+ maintained; blood plasma K+ decreases. blood volume and BP maintained by decreasing urine output)
196
Q

atrial natriuretic peptide

A
  1. Stimulus: increased stretch of baroreceptors in atria
  2. Receptor: Atria responds to stimuli
  3. Control Center: Atria releases ANP into the blood
  4. Effectors: ANP binds to effectors to cause
    - vasodilation
    - increased GFR
    - increased loss of Na+
    - decreased release of renin
  5. Net effect: peripheral resistance decreases; blood volume decreases, BP decreases
197
Q

ANP on systemic blood vessels

A

vasodilation occurs, decreasing peripheral resistance and decreasing BP

198
Q

ANP on kidneys

A
  • increases GFR which increases urine output to decrease blood volume and BP
  • increased loss of Na+ and water in urine; decreases blood volume and BP
  • decreased release of renin (and interferes with action of angiotensin II); decreased release of aldosterone and ADH
199
Q

Acid-Base Balance

A
  • also called pH balance
  • normal pH; 7.35 - 7.45 (slightly alkaline)
  • proper pH balance critical
  • pH inversely related to H+ concentration
    (adding an acid increases H+, base reduces it)
200
Q

increased blood H+ concentration (decrease in pH)

A
  1. Contributing Factors
    - acid is added to the blood from the GI tract and cell metabolic waste
    - H+ increases in blood plasma making blood more alkaline
  2. balance mechanism
    - excess H+ is excreted in urine and HCO3- is added to blood through type A intercalated cells
201
Q

loss of HCO3- causes

A

diarrhea

202
Q

decreased blood H+ concentration (increased pH)

A
  1. contributing factors
    - base is added to the blood form the GI tract
    - pH decreases in blood making blood acidic
  2. balance mechanism
    - excess HCO3- is excreted in the urine and H+ is added to the blood through type B intercalated cells
203
Q

loss of H+ in blood causes

A

vomitting

204
Q

type B intercalated cells add

A

HCO3- ions

205
Q

type A intercalated cells add

A

HCO3- ions

206
Q

abnormal increase in respiratory rate

A
  • causes elevated levels of CO2 to be expired
  • decreases blood CO2 concentration
  • blood h+ concentration decreases
  • blood pH increases
  • decrease in partial pressure of CO2
    equation driven to the left:
  • CO2 + H2O - H2CO3 - H+ HCO3-
207
Q

abnormal decreases in respiratory rate

A
  • increases amount of CO2 retained, elevating blood CO2
  • blood H+ concentration increases
  • blood pH decreases
    equation driven to the right
  • CO2 + H2O - H2CO3 - H+ HCO3-
208
Q

acid-base disturbance / acid-base imbalance

A
  • persistent pH change
  • life threatening for any extended period of time
209
Q

four categories of acid-base disturbances

A
  1. respiratory acidosis
  2. respiratory alkalosis
  3. metabolic acidosis
  4. metabolic alkalosis
210
Q

respiratory acidosis

A

most common acid-base disturbance
due to impaired elimination of CO2 by respiratory system
PCO2 in arterial blood is above 45 mm Hg (n=38-42)
Accumulation of CO2 and subsequent increase in H+ concentration

211
Q

possible causes of respiratory acidosis

A
  • injury to respiratory center by trauma or infection
  • disorders of muscles or nerves involved with breathing
  • airway obstruction
  • decreased gas exchange (due to reduced respiratory surface area or thickened respiratory membrane)
212
Q

respiratory alkalosis

A
  • PCO2 below 35 mm Hg due to increase in respiration
  • decrease of CO2 and subsequent lower H+ concentration
  • possible causes of hyperventilation (severe anxiety, condition in which individual isn’t receiving sufficient oxygen like high altitude, heart failure, severe anemia)
213
Q

metabolic acidosis

A
  • may occur from loss of HCO3- or gain of H+ (more commonly due to gain of H+)
  • H+ binding to HCO3-, decreasing levels
  • occurs when HCO3- levels drop below 22 mEq/L (n=22-26 mEq/L)
214
Q

possible causes of metabolic acidosis

A

increased production of metabolic acids
e.g.:
- ketoacidosis from diabetes
- lactic acid from glycolysis
- acetic acid from excessive alcohol intake

  • decreased acid elimination due to renal dysfunction
  • increased elimination of HCO3- due to severe diarrhea
215
Q

metabolic alkalosis

A

arterial blood levels of HCO3- above 26 mEq/L
from loss of H+ or increase of HCO3-
possible causes:
- vomiting (most common)
- large amounts of antacids
- increased loss of acids by kidney with diuretic overuse

216
Q

renal compenstation

A

occurs in response to elevated or decreased blood H+ (due to a cause other than renal dysfunction)

217
Q

type A intercalated cells

A

excrete H+ and reabsorb HCO3-
occurs at a greater degree than normal during compensation
blood levels HCO3- high in compensation

218
Q

during renal compensation urine pH with elevated levels of H+ levels are

A

lower than normal
urine levels of H+ high in compensation

219
Q

renal compensation in response to decreased blood H+

A

type B intercalated cells reabsorb H+ and excrete HCO3-
occurs to a greater degree than normal during compensation
blood levels of HCO3- are low in compensation
urine pH is higher than normal

220
Q

respiratory compensation

A
  • attempts to compensate for metabolic imbalances
  • less effective than renal compensation
221
Q

respiratory compensation from increased H+ concentration

A

respiratory rate increases as a result and causes
- higher amounts of CO2 expired
- lower blood PCO2 value

222
Q

respiratory compensation from decreased H+ concentration

A

respiratory rate decreases and as a result
- lower than normal amounts of CO2 expired
- higher than normal blood CO2 value
- limited by development of hypoxia

Human Anatomy and Phys Sp23 (5 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions