Exam 1 Flashcards
primary reproductive organs of female
ovaries
accessory reproductive organs of female
uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia, mammary glands
anatomy of ovaries
paired, oval organs
within pelvic cavity lateral to uterus
slightly larger than an almond in an adult
ovarian follicles are the site of
oocyte production and sex hormone release (estrogen and progesterone)
what forms from secondary follicles
large vesicular (mature) follicle
mature follicle contains
a secondary oocyte
surrounded by zona pellucid and corona radiata
numerous layers of granulosa cells
fluid filled antrium
completed meiosis I
arrested in second meiotic metaphase
one formed per month
corpus luteum forms from
remnants of follicle
corpus luteum formation
after mature follicle ruptures and oocyte expelled corpus luteum forms
secretes sex hormones progesterone and estrogen
- stimulate buildup of uterine lining (endometrium)
-prepare uterus for possible implantation of fertilized oocyte
from puberty to menopause
hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) to stimulate release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
FSH and LH in oogenesis and ovarian cycle
levels vary in cyclical pattern
produce monthly sequence of events called ovarian cycle
3 phases of ovarian cycle
follicular
ovulation
luteal
how many days is the follicular phase
1-13
days of ovulation
day 14
days of luteal phase
15-28
ovulation
release of secondary oocyte from mature follicle
occurs on day 14 of 28 day cycle
usually only one ovary ovulates each month (random)
antrum increases in size and swells with increased fluid
expands until ovarian surface thins (eventually ruptures, expelling secondary oocyte)
ovulation is induced by
increase in LH
uterine cycle
cyclical changes in endometrial lining
influenced by estrogen and progesterone (secreted by follicle and then corpus luteum)
timeline based on 28-day uterine cycle
(varies 21 to 35 day cycle)
phases of uterine cycle
menstrual phase
proliferative phase
secretory phase
menstrual cycle
days 1-5
sloughing off of the functional layer
last through period of menstrual bleeding
proliferative phase
days 6-14
development of new functional layer of endometrium
overlaps time of follicle growth and ovarian estrogen secretion
secretory phase
days 15-28
increased progesterone secretion from corpus luteum
results in increased vascularization and uterine gland development
if fertilization doesn’t occur during secretory phase…
degeneration of corpus luteum
dramatic drop of progesterone
without progesterone, functional layer sloughs off starting cycle over again
what hormones increase during ovulation
mainly LH and estrogen
what hormones increase during the luteal or secretory phase
progesterone, FSH at beginning of new cycle
breast milk / lactation
occurs in response to internal and external stimuli
start to produce after giving birth
prolactin and oxytocin
prolactin
produced in anterior pituitary and responsible for milk production
with increase, mammary gland forms more and larger alveoli
oxytocin
produced by hypothalamus and released from posterior pituitary
responsible for milk ejection
primary reproductive organs of males
testes
accessory reproductive organs of males
ducts and tubules leading from testes to penis, male accessory glands, penis
4 parts of uterine tube
infundibulum
ampulla
isthmus
uterine part
infundibulum
lies first on ovary, funnel shaped going upwards
has to catch ovulated oocyte consistent with shape of infundibulum
has fimbriae- splay over ovary surface to help catch oocyte
where does fertilization occur
ampulla
the uterine wall is mostly composed of
smooth muscle
layers of uterine wall deep to superficial
endometrium
myometrium-mainly muscle
perimetrium- thin connective tissue covering on outside
mammary glands
fat surrounds mammary gland tissue where it is divided into lobules composed of alveoli
what kind of glands are mammary glands
exocrine glands
what brings milk to nipple
lactiferous ducts
what is responsible for storage of sperm
epididymis
ductus deferens (vas)
ends towards abdominal, passes through anal canal and merges with the urethra
in the male, the urethra serves as
outflow for both reproductive and urinary products
what is the only singular gland in the male reproductive system
prostate
testes are divided into
lobules divided by septum
what is inside lobules of testes
tightly packed seminiferous tubules
where are gametes produced in the male
seminiferous tubules
where is sperm found in seminiferous tubule
inside tubule lumen
spermatids border lumen
spermatatogonia on outside of lumen, surrounding border or interstitial cell
sustentacular cells (sertoli)
provide sustenance to germ cells, support them, provide nutritional support, influence rate of sperm cell production
spermatogonia contain
46 chromosomes
speramtids and sperm contains
23 chromosomes
hormonal regulation of spermatogenesis and androgen production
- GnRH secreted by the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH
- LH stimulates interstitial cells to secrete testosterone. FSH stimulates sustentacular cells to secrete androgen-binding protein (ABP) which keeps testosterone levels high in the testis
- Testosterone stimulates spermatogenesis but inhibits GnRH secretion and reduces the anterior pituitary’s sensitivity to GnRH
- Rising sperm count levels cause sustentacular cells to secrete inhibin, which further inhibits FSH secretion
- Testosterone stimulates libido and development of secondary sex characteristics
seminal fluid
alkaline secretion needed to neutralize vaginal acidity
gives nutrients to sperm traveling in female reproductive tract
what produces seminal fluid
seminal vesicles
prostate gland
bulbourethral gland
semen
formed from seminal fluid and sperm
called ejaculate when release during intercourse
200-500 million spermatozoa
transit time from seminiferous tubules to ejaculate is about 2 weeks
puberty
period in adolescence
reproductive organs becoming fully functional
external sex characteristics becoming more prominent (breast enlargement and pubic hair growth)
timing is affected by genetics, health, and environment
puberty initiation
hypothalamus beginning to secrete GnRH
stimulates anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH
stimulates significant levels of sex hormones which starts the process of gamete and sexual maturation
signs of puberty
pubic and axillary hair in boys and girls
breast development in girls
boys w/ testicle and penis growth
rapid growth of laryngeal structures in boys
(causes voice to change and become lower in pitch)
menarche
first period, about 2 years after signs of puberty
puberty timing
girls 2 years prior to boys
about 8-12 for girls and 9-14 boys
african-american girls about 1 year earlier than caucasians
onset has dropped with better nutrition and health care
precocious puberty
signs of puberty developing much earlier than normal
may be without known cause
may be due to pituitary or gonad tumor
perimenopause
time near menopause
irregular or skipped periods
menopause
woman stop monthly cycles for a year
age 45-55
atrophy of reproductive organs and breasts with reduced hormones
decrease in vaginal wall thickness and uterine shrinking
“hot flashes”
thinning scalp hair and increased facial hair
increased risk of osteoporosis and heart disease
symptoms treated with hormone replacement therapy (not much anymore)
fertilization
two gametes fuse to form new diploid cell
restores diploid number of chromosomes
determines sex of organsim
initiates cleavage
occurs in widest part of uterine tube, ampulla
oocyte viable for 24 hrs following ovulation
sperm remain viable for 3-4 days
phases of fertilization
- corona radiata penetration
- zona pellucida penetration
corona radiata penetration
sperm reaches secondary oocyte
initially prevented entry by corona radiata and zona pellucida
can push through cell layers of corona radiata
zona pellucida penetration
acrosome reaction
-release of digestive enzymes from acrosomes
-allows sperm to penetrate zona pellucida
after penetration of secondary oocyte
-immediate hardening of zona pellucida
prevents other sperm from entering this layer
ensures only one sperm fertilizes the oocyte
labor
physical expulsion of fetus and placenta from uterus
typically at 38 weeks for full-term pregnancy
not all uterine contractions lead to true labor
contractions weak and irregular first
become more intense and frequent with increasing estrogen and oxytocin
increased levels of estrogen in labor
increase uterine myometrium sensitivity
stimulate production of oxytocin receptors on uterine myometrium
premature labor
labor prior to 38 weeks
undesirable because infant’s body systems not fully developed (especially lungs - insufficient surfactant)
greater risk for morbidity and mortality
initiation of true labor
uterine contractions that increase in intensity and regularity; changes to the cervix occur
- mother’s hypothalamus secretes increasing levels of oxytocin
- fetus’s hypothalamus also secreting oxytocin
-combined maternal and fetal oxytocin initiates true labor
-both sources stimulate placenta to secrete prostaglandins (uterine muscle contraction and soften and dilate cervix)
positive feedback mechanism of true labor
- control center - fetus’s hypothalamus and mother’s hypothalamus both secrete oxytocin
- stimulus - oxytocin from fetus’s and mother’s hypothalamus
- Effector- stimulates place to make prostaglandins
Effector - stimulates uterus to contract
4.Stimulus- Prostaglandins stimulate more frequent and intense contractions of uterus - Effector - uterine contractions cause the fetal head to push against the cervix making the cervix stretch and dilate
- stimulus- dilating cervix initiates nerve signals to the hypothalamus which cause it to secrete more oxytocin (positive feedback)
blood
continuously regenerated connective tissue
moves gases, nutrients, wastes, and horones
transported through cardiovascular system
the heart…
pumps blood
arteries…
transport blood away from heart
veins…
transport blood toward heart
capillaries…
allow exchange between blood and body tissues
components of blood
formed elements and plasma
formed elements
erythrocytes
leukocytes
platelets
erythrocytes
red blood cells
transport respiratory gases in the blood
leukocytes
white blood cells
defend against pathogens
platelets
thrombocytes
help form clots to prevent blood loss
plasma
fluid portion of blood
contains plasma proteins and dissolved solutes
functions of blood
transportation
protection
regulation of body conditions
transportation
blood transports formed elements, dissolved molecules, and ions
-carries oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from lungs
-transports nutrients, hormones, heat and waste products
protection
leukocytes, plasma proteins, and other molecules (of immune system) protect against pathogens
platelets and certain plasma proteins protect against blood loss
regulation of body conditions
body temp
body pH
fluid balance
body temperature and blood
blood absorbs heat from body cells (especially muscle)
heat released at skin blood vessels
body pH
body absorbs acid and base from body cells
blood contains chemical buffers (e.g., bicarbonate; proteins)
fluid balance
water is added to blood from GI tract
water lost through urine, skin, respiration
fluid is constantly exchanged between blood and interstitial fluid
-blood contains proteins and ions helping maintain osmotic balance
what does blood color depend on
degree of oxyenation
oxygen rich blood is
bright red
oxygen poor blood is
dark red
volume of blood in an adult…
5 liters
on average males have slightly more
viscosity
blood is 4-5x thicker than water
what does the viscosity of blood depend on
amount of dissolved and suspended substance relative to amount of fluid
viscosity increases if
erythrocyte number increases or amount of fluid decreases
plasma concentration of solutes (proteins, ions, etc)
typically .09%
determines the direction of osmosis across capillary walls
(during dehydration plasma hypertonic-fluid drawn from tissues)
temperature
blood is 1 degree C higher than measured body temperature
38 degrees C (100.4 degrees F)
warms area through which it travels
blood pH
slightly alkaline
pH between 7.35 and 7.45
crucial for normal plasma protein shape (avoiding denaturation)
physical characteristics of blood
color (red)
volume - 5 L
viscosity - 4/5x thicker than water
solute concentration - .09%
temperature - 38 degrees C (100.4 degrees F)
pH- alkaline (7.35-7.45)
centrifuged blood
plasma (55%)
buffy coat (<1%)
eryhtrocytes (44%)
plasma in centrifuged blood
water - 92%
proteins - 7%
other solutes - 1%
proteins 7%
albumins 58%
globulins 37%
fibrinogen 4%
regulatory proteins <1%
other solutes 1%
electrolytes
nutrients
respiratory gases
waste products
buffy coat <1%
platelets - 150-400 thousand per cubic mm
leukocytes - 4.5-11 thousand per cubic mm
leukocytes
neutrophils (50-70%)
lymphocytes (20-40%)
monocytes (2-8%)
eosinophils (1-4%)
basophils (.5-1%)
erythrocytes 44%
4.2-6.2 million per cubic mm
plasma
extracellular fluid
similar composition to interstitial fluid but plasma has higher protein concentration
blood is referred to as
colloid
plasma proteins are
albumin, globulins, fibrinogen and other clotting proteins, enzymes and some hormones
mostly produced in the liver
others produced by leukocytes or other organs
plasma proteins exert colloid osmotic pressure
prevents loos of fluid from blood as it moves through capillaries (helps maintain blood volume and blood pressure)
how are plasma proteins impacted by disease
can be decreased with diseases resulting in fluid loss from blood and tissue swelling
e.g. liver disease that decrease production of plasma proteins
e.g. kidney diseases that increase elimination of plasma proteins
albumins
smallest and most abundant group of plasma proteins (58%)
exert greatest colloid osmotic pressure
act as transport proteins for some lipids, hormones, and ions
globulins
second largest group of plasma proteins (37%)
smaller alpha-globulins and larger beta-globulins
transport some water-insoluble molecules, hormones, metals, ions
gamma globulins (immunoglobulins or antibodies) - part of bodies defense
fibrinogen
makes up only 4% of plasma proteins
contributes to blood clot formation
following trauma, it is converted to insoluble fibrin strands
serum is plasma with clotting proteins removed
regulatory proteins
less than 1% of total proteins
includes enzymes and hormones
hemopoiesis
production of formed elements
where does hemopoiesis occur
in red bone marrow of certain bones
hemocytoblasts
stem cells
produce two different lines: myeloid and lymphoid
pluriopotent
can differentiate into may types of cells
myeloid line
forms erythrocytes, all leukocytes (except lymphocytes and megakaryocytes - cells that produce platelets)
lymphoid line
forms only lymphocytes
maturation of erythrocytes
hemocytoblast
myeloid stem cell
multi-CSF
erythropoiesis
…
eryhtrocytes
maturation of platelets
hemocytoblast
myeloid stem cell
multi-CSF
thrombopoiesis
…
platelets
maturation of granulocytes and monocytes
hemocytoblast
myeloid stem cell
multi-CSF
leukopoiesis
GM-CSF - progenitor cell
1 granulocyte line - granulocytes
2 monocyte line - monocytes
maturation of B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes, and natural killer cells
hemocytoblast
lymphoid line
lymphoid stem cell
1 B lymphocyte
2 T lymphocyte
3 directly to natural killer cells
megkaryocytes
give rise to platelets and have multilobulated nuclei
platelet formation
megakaryocytes sit against capillary wall
on small openings on wall, megakaryocytes appendages fall into opening called proplatelets and as blood pushes through capillary platelets fall off appendages and into capillary
erythrocytes (red blood cells)
small flexible formed elements
lack nucleus and cellular organelles; packed with hemoglobin
have biconcave disc structure
transport oxygen and carbon dioxide between tissues and lungs
disc structure of erythrocytes
has lattice work of spectrin protein providing support and flexibility
can stack and line up in single file (roleau)
why can erythrocytes pass through blood vessels
rouleau allows the shape to change
hemoglobin
red-pigmented protein
transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
termed oxygenated when maximally loaded with oxygen
termed deoxygenated when SOME oxygen lost
oxygen binds to iron (weak for rapid detachment in body tissues)
CO2 binds to globin protein (not iron) - weak binding attachment in body tissue and detachment in lungs
each hemoglobin is composed of
four globins
two alpha chains and two beta chains
each chain has a heme group: a prophyrin ring with an iron ion in its center
- oxygen binds to the iron ion so each hemoglobin can bind four oxygen molecules
each hemoglobin is composed of
four globins
two alpha chains and two beta chains
each chain has a heme group: a porphyrin ring with an iron ion in its center
- oxygen binds to the iron ion so each hemoglobin can bind four oxygen molecules
EPO regulation of erythrocyte production
- stimulus - decreased blood oxygen levels
- receptor - kidney detects decreased blood O2
- control center - kidney releases EPO into the blood
- effector - EPO stimulates red bone marrow to increase the rate of production of erythrocytes
- net effect - increased numbers of erythrocytes enter the circulation, during which time the lungs oxygenate erythrocytes and blood O2 levels increase
- increased O2 levels are detected by the kidney which stops EPO release by negative feedback
erythrocyte recycling
- erythrocytes form in red bone marrow
- they circulate in the blood for about 120 days
- aged erythrocytes are phagocytized by macrophages in the liver and spleen and the three components of hemoglobin are separated
- each of the separated components of heme (globin, iron ion, and heme) has a different fate
macrophages
cells that are very adept to phagocytize harmful things in the body like bacteria, viruses, tumor cells, cellular debris
fate of globin
globin proteins are broken down into amino acids and enter into the blood where some are used to make new erythrocytes
fate of iron (Fe-)
small amounts of iron are lost in sweat, urine, and feces daily; iron is also lost via injury and menstruation
iron is stored in the liver attached to ferritin
iron is transported by transferrin to the red bone marrow as needed for erythrocytes production
fate of heme (minus iron)
converted to biliverdin - bilirubin
bilirubin is transported to liver by albumin and then released as a component of bile in the small intestine
bilirubin is converted to urobilinogen within small intestine
most urobilinogen continues to the large intestine and is converted to stercobilin and expelled in feces
some urobilinogen is absorbed back into the blood and converted to urobilin and excreted in the urine
what percentage of urobilinogen is used by the kidneys
10%
type A blood
contain surface antigen A and anti-B antibodies
type B blood
contain surface antigen B and anti-A antibodies
type AB blood
contain surface antigen A and B and no antibodies
type O blood
contain no surface antigens and anti-A and anti-B antibodies
Rh Blood Type
presence or absence of Rh factor (antigen D) on eryhtrocytes determines if blood type is positive or negative
antibodies to Rh factor are not common (only there if Rh- is exposed to Rh+ blood)
aggulation reaction
type B recipient
type A donor
antibodies from recipient (anti-A) aggulinate type A blood from donor blocking small vessels
leukocyte characteristics
defend against pathogens
contain nucleus and organelles but not hemoglobin
motile and flexible - most not in blood but in tissues
diapedesis
process of squeezing through blood vessel wall
chemotaxis
attraction of leukocytes to chemicals at an infection site
granulocytes
neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils
agranulocytes
lymphocytes
monocytes
least abundant to most abundant leukocytes
neutrophils
lymphocytes
monocytes
eosinophils
basophils
neutrophils
granulocyte
phagocytize pathogens (bacteria!!) and release enzymes that target pathogens
50-70% of total leukocytes
eosinophils
granulocyte
phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes and allergens release chemical mediators to destroy PARASITIC WORMS
1-4% of total leukocytes
basophils
granulocyte
release HISTAMINE (vasodialator and increases capillary permeability) and heparin (anticoagulant) during inflammatory responses
.5-1% of total leukocytes
lymphocytes
agranulocytes
coordinate immune cell activity, attack pathogens and abnormal infected cells, produce antibodies
20-40% of total leukocytes
monocytes
agranulocytes
exit blood vessels and become macrophages, phagocytize pathogen (bacteria and viruses), cellular fragments, dead cells, debris
2-8% of total leukocytes
platelets
thrombocytes
small, membrane-enclosed cell fragments with no nucleus
break off of megakaryocytes in red marrow
platelets are important for
blood clotting
how long are platelets circulated in the blood stream for
8-10 days; then broken down and recycled
what percentage of thrombocytes are stored in the spleen
30%
hemostasis
stoppage of bleeding
phases of hemostasis
vascular spasm
platelet plug formation
coagulation phase
vascular spasm
blood vessel constriction
limits blood leakage
lasts from few to many minutes
platelets and endothelial cells release chemicals that stimulate further constriction
greater vasoconstriction with greater vessel damage
blood vessels endothelial wall is coated with
prostacyclin, an eicosanoid that repels platelets
causes endothelial cells and platelets to make cAMP which inhibits platelet activation
when blood vessel is damaged, a platelet plug is formed when
collagen fibers in vessel wall become exposed and platelets stick to collagen with the help of von Williebrand factor
the platelets aggregate and close off injury
platelet activation
platelet’s cytosol degranulates and releases chemicals
-serotonin and thromboxane A2 cause prolonged vascular spams
-ADP and thromboxane A2 attract other platelets and facilitate their degranulation (positive feedback)
-procoagulants stimulate coagulation
-mitosis stimulating substances trigger repair of blood vessel
platelet plug is formed
quickly, usually less tahn 1 min but is prevented from getting too large by prostacyclin secretion by nearby healthy cells
coagulation
blood clotting
coagulation phase
network of fibrin (insoluble protein) forms a meshes that traps eryhtrocytes, leukocytes, platelets, plasma proteins to form a clot
fibrin comes from
soluble precursor fibrinogen
what substances are involved in coagulation
platelets
calcium
clotting factors
vitamin K
clotting factors are mostly
inactive enzymes
where are most clotting factors produced
in the liver within hepatocytes
vitamin K
fat soluble coenzyme required for synthesis of clotting factors II, VII, IX, X
coagulation pathways
intrinsic pathway
extrinsic pathway
common pathway
intrinsic pathway
initated by damage to inside of vessel
factor XII turns into factor VIII
extrinsic pathway
initiated by damage to tissue outside of vessel
tissue factor or factor III and factor VII
the products of the intrinsic and extrinsic pathway start
the beginning common pathway
common pathway
factor X —— fibrinogen——fibrin—–fibrin polymer
clot elimination includes
clot retraction and fibrinolysis
clot retraction
actinomyosin (protein within platelets) contracts and squeezes serum out of developing clot making it smaller
fibrinolysis
degradation of fibrin strands by plasmin
begins within 2 days after clot formation
occurs slowly over a number of days
