Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Anatomy 2 > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Define absorption

A

Moving substances from the lumen of the gut into the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Define nutrition

A

Process of providing of obtaining the food necessary for health and growth

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Define metabolism

A

The sum of:
Anabolism: reactions that build molecules
Catabolism: all processes that break down molecules

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Define digestion

A

Catabolic process that breaks down large food molecules into monomers

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Define nutrients vs essential nutrients

A

Nutrient: substance in food that the body uses for growth, maintenance, and repair

Essential nutrients: those that are needed to be ingested in the diet

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Six major nutrient categories

A

Macro: carbs, protein, fats, water
Micro: Vitamins and minerals

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Recommended macronutrient distribution ranges for the 3 macros

A

Protein: 10-35%
Fats: 20-35% (less than 10 should be saturated)
Carbs: 45-65%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Definition of a calorie

A

Amount of heat needed to raise one gram of water one degree Celsius.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Calories produced by one gram of each macronutrient

A

Carbs and proteins: 4 kcal/g
Fats: 9 kcal/g

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Empty calories and examples

A

Calories that contribute to caloric intake but have little nutrition (Alcohol and sugary food)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Fat soluble vitamin definition and list

A

Absorbed within dietary lipids and are usually stored in the body.
Vitamins A,D,E,K
(K is not stored)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Water soluble vitamin definition and list

A

Absorbed with water and usually excreted in the urine
Vitamins B and C

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Hormone that regulates iron absorption and mobilization

A

Hepcidin (liver hormone)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What transports iron into the bloodstream

A

Ferroportin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Protein that stores excess iron

A

Ferritin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What is iron used for in the body

A

Hemoglobin synthesis, myoglobin synthesis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Enzyme in oral cavity that begins to process starch

A

salivary amylase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Three enzymes that break down carbohydrates, description

A

Dextrinase and glucoamylase: act on oligosaccharides composed of more than 3 simple sugars, break down into monosaccharides
Disaccharides: hydrolyze maltose, sucrose, lactose into monosaccharides

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Location of carbohydrate digesting enzymes

A

The microvilli (brush border) of the small intestine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Three pathways of the aerobic respiration of glucose

A

Glycolysis, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

ATP gain from oxidizing one glucose molecule

A

There is a net gain of 32 ATP per glucose molecule

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Main purpose of aerobic respiration of glucose

A

Generate ATP by breaking down glucose

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Summarize the Four important events in glucose oxidation

A

Glycolysis: breakdown of glucose
Pyruvate processing: anaerobic fermentation
Citric acid cycle: Oxidizes Acetyl CoA to CO2
Electron transport: Establishes proton gradient used to generate ATP

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Definition of glycogenesis

A

Polymerizes glucose to glycogen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Definition of Glycogenolysis

A

Hydrolyzes glycogen to glucose monomers

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Definition of glycolysis

A

Converts glucose to pyruvic acid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Definition of gluconeogenesis

A

Forms glucose from noncarb precursors

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Enzymes that digest proteins

A

Peptidases/proteases

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Which organ breaks down small polypeptides, what do they become

A

The pancreas breaks them into oligopeptides

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

The stomach uses pepsin for what

A

Breaks protein into small polypeptides

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

How are oligopeptides broken down into free amino acids

A

The small intestine brush border breaks down peptides into free amino acids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Purpose of nitrogen balance, downside of negative balance

A

Nitrogen in equilibrium is necessary for homeostasis, negative balance is associated with muscle atrophy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What causes negative nitrogen balance

A

If carbohydrate and fat intake are insufficient

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Processes in converting amino acids to keto acids

A

Transamination, oxidative deamination, keto acid modification

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Transmination description

A

Amine group is moved from amino to keto acid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Oxidative deamination description

A

Amine group of glutamic acid is removed and recombined with CO2 to form urea

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Composition of bile

A

Bile salts, lecithin, cholesterol, proteins.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Bile salt composition

A

made of bile acids that are often bonded to glycerine or taurine to increase water solubility

Produced in the liver from cholesterol

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Steps in lipid digestion

A

Emulsification, digestion, and micelle formation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Emulsification of lipids process

A

Bile salts in duodenum break large fat globules down

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Digestion of lipids (lipases) process

A

Pancreatic lipases digest triglycerides into fatty acids and 2-monoglycerides

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Micelle formation, purpose

A

Bile salts aggregate into micelles that incorporate lipid digestion products

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Lipoprotein definition

A

Tiny droplets with a core of cholesterol and triglycerides and a coating of proteins and phospholipids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Purpose of protein coating on lipoproteins

A

Enables lipids to remain suspended in blood. Acts as a recognition marker for cells that absorb them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Categories of lipoproteins

A

Chylomicron, VLDL (very low density), LDL, HDL (high)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Summarize lipid transport

A
  1. Chylomicrons carry TGs from small intestines into body
  2. Chylomicron remnant travels to liver for disassembly
    LDL deliver cholesterol
    HDL delivers cholesterol to liver
    VLDL bring more TGs
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

How are fatty acids oxidized for energy

A

Glycerol is converted to pyruvate through glycolysis, FAs are beta-oxidized
Pyruvate and fatty acids become Acetyl-CoA. This is converted to ATP through the Krebs cycle
Excess Acetyl-CoA form ketone bodies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

brain centers involved in hunger, hormones used

A

Arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus: Ghrelin, CCK, insulin for hunger. Leptin for satiety

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Define lipogenesis, process in the body

A

Synthesis of fats from other molecules.
Excessive amounts of carbs and amino acids are converted to Triglycerides. When needed for energy, fats enter catabolic pathways.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

Short term regulator of hunger

A

Ghrelin: Secreted when stomach is empty.
Hunger is also stimulated partly by gastric peristalsis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Short term regulators of satiety

A

Amylin, CCK, Peptide YY. Signal to terminate eating

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

Long term appetite regulators, role in obesity

A

Leptin and insulin act as adiposity signals, telling the brain how much adipose tissue is in the body.

Leptin level is proportional to fat storage, leptin insensitivity is a common factor in obesity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

Primary vs secondary sex organs

A

Primary organs produce the gametes (sperm)
Secondary are other organs that are necessary for reproduction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

Importance of the scrotum for the testes

A

Provides a temperatures slightly lower than body temperature, which is needed for the production of sperm.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

Dartos muscle role in regulating temperature

A

Contracts more to decrease surface area and reduce heat loss. Does the opposite to promote heat loss in hot weather.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

Cremaster muscle purpose

A

Lowers and raises the testis to control the temperature

57
Q

Three mechanisms for regulating the temperature of the testes

A

Dartos muscle, cremaster muscle, scrotal rugae

58
Q

Pampiniform plexus role

A

Acts as a countercurrent heat exchange.

The testicular arterial and venous blood vessels are very close, facilitating the transfer of heat between inflowing arterial blood and outflowing (cooler) venous blood.

59
Q

Purpose of seminiferous tubule

A

Spermatogenesis takes place within the seminiferous tubule

60
Q

Cells within the seminiferous tubule, purposes

A

Leydig cell: Produce testosterone

Peritubular myoid cell: surround the tubules

Sertoli (nurse) cell: nourishes developing sperm cells, secrete ABP and inhibin

61
Q

Hormones involved in the regulation of spermatogenesis, how they are secreted

A

Hypothalamus secretes GnRH, pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH.

Testosterone binds to ABP, stimulates spermatogenesis.

Sertoli cells can produce inhibin to inhibit spermatogenesis

62
Q

First stage/cells in spermatogenesis

A

Spermatogonia divide by mitosis, forming spermatocytes

63
Q

Second stage/cells in spermatogenesis

A

Primary and secondary spermatocytes. Primary spermatocytes undergo Meiosis I, resulting in haploid secondary cells.

64
Q

Third stage/cells in spermatogenesis

A

After Meiosis II, four haploid spermatids are created. The pairs of spermatids are connected still.

65
Q

Final stage in spermatogenesis, process

A

Spermiogenesis, the differentiation of spermatids into spermatozoa. The spermatid gains a tail and discards cytoplasm.

66
Q

Steps required for spermatozoa to be fertilization competent

A

They must go through epidydimal maturation in the male and capacitation in the female tract.

67
Q

Structure of a spermatozoon

A

The head: contains acrosome, nucleus, basal body
Tail middle piece: Contains the axoneme and mitochondria

68
Q

Essential structures for erection rigidity, description

A

Corpus cavernosum (two): contain sinusoid cavities and smooth muscle

Corpus spongiosum: surrounds the urethra and keeps it open during ejaculation

69
Q

Nervous system branch associated with erection, mechanism

A

Parasympathetic NS: secretes nitric oxide, a vasodilator and smooth muscle relaxant.

Traps blood within the erectile tissues

70
Q

Nitric Oxide-cGMP pathway for erection mechanism

A

Arousal initiates the erection.
NO increases production of cGMP, reducing calcium concentration and relaxing the smooth muscle. Blood flow is increased.

The erection ends when cGMP is broken down by PDE5

71
Q

Path of sperm from testes outward

A

Seminiferous tubules
Testis (rete)
Efferent tubules
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Ejaculatory duct
Urethra
Penis

72
Q

Where does sperm mature in the body

A

Rete testis: partially mature them
Efferent tubules: help drive sperm forward
Epididymis: finish maturing and are stored here

73
Q

Major components of semen and their function

A

Citrate: clotting enzyme, coagulates semen
Prostate Specific Antigen: liquifies coagulated semen after a delay

74
Q

Mechanism of sperm coagulation and liquification

A

Coagulation: Semenogelin binds zinc and entangles sperm to stick to vaginal walls. This activates PSA.
Liquification: PSA breaks down Semenogelin and liquifies semen

75
Q

Nerve and spinal cord section involved in erection

A

Parasympathetic sacral section. Via the pudendal nerve.

76
Q

Nervous system role in ejaculation

A

The emission of seminal fluid is through the sympathetic NS.
Ejaculation is controlled by somatic nervous system.

77
Q

pH of the vagina and purpose

A

Low pH (3.5-4) to inhibit pathogens. Contains dendritic cells to aid in immunity

78
Q

How are immature eggs stored

A

Immature eggs develop in ovarian follicles

79
Q

First stage in oogenesis

A

Oogonium differentiate into primary oocytes before birth. These oocytes stay in prophase of meiosis one until puberty

80
Q

Second stage of oogenesis

A

At puberty, primary oocytes complete meiosis I and form secondary oocytes.

81
Q

Final stage of oogenesis

A

Meiosis II will finish if the secondary oocyte is fertilized by sperm. It then becomes an ootid

82
Q

Reproductive cycle definition

A

The sequence of events from fertilization to giving birth

83
Q

Sexual cycle definition and parts

A

The events that recur every month outside of pregnancy: consists of ovarian and menstrual cycles.

84
Q

Ovarian cycle main events and phases

A

Events that occur in the ovaries: Follicular and luteal phase.

Follicular phase: development of ovarian follicles in response to FSH.

Ovulation: release of secondary oocyte, burst of LH secretion and start of luteal phase.

Luteal phase: formation of corpus luteum in response to LH. Ends in pregnancy or luteolysis.

85
Q

Menstrual cycle phases and desctription

A

Menstrual, proliferative, secretory, and premenstrual phase.
Consists of a buildup and breakdown of the endometrium.

86
Q

Hormonal regulation of the follicular phase

A
  1. GnRH stimulates pituitary gland to release FSH.
  2. Thecal cells secrete androgens.
  3. Granulosa cells convert androgens to estrogens.
  4. The mature follicle upregulates its receptors for FSH, LH, and estradiol.
87
Q

Dominant follicle definition and hormonal processes

A

The follicle that dominates over other follicles for FSH is the dominant follicle.
It secretes estrogen and inhibin, which have negative feedback on FSH, turning off the neighboring follicles.
Neighboring follicles undergo atresia (apoptosis of the cells within the follicle)

88
Q

Changes in the endometrium during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle

A

During menstrual phase: discharge of functional layer of the endometrium.

Proliferative phase: Increase of estrogen levels, forming a new layer of the endometrium in the uterus. Creates progesterone receptors.

89
Q

Ovulation phase events

A

GnRH and Estrogen levels increase LH secretion. Meiosis I is completed, follicular wall is ruptured. This causes ovulation.

90
Q

Luteal phase events

A

LH causes the ruptured follicle to form the corpus luteum.
As estrogen and progesterone levels increase: The uterine glands secrete nutrients, the endometrium thickens.
When the levels decrease, the functional layer begins to die, a new cycle begins.

91
Q

Menopause definition and changes observed

A

Menopause: natural cessation of ovulatory function as a result of decline of estrogen and progesterone.
Effects: Uterus, breasts, and vagina atrophy. Increases skin dryness, decreases bone mass, increases risk of cardiovascular disease.

92
Q

Major hormones that regulate pregnancy

A

hCG, Relaxin, cortisol, estradiol, progesterone

93
Q

Role of human chorionic gonadotropin

A

Prevents the shrinking of corpus luteum, increases its growth and secretions

94
Q

Relaxin is secreted by? and purpose

A

Released from ovaries and placenta: relaxes the pelvis and widens the cervix

95
Q

Cortisol purpose

A

Mobilizes amino acids for fetal proteins

96
Q

Estradiol purpose

A

Increases tissue growth and mammary duct development

97
Q

Progesterone purpose

A

Decreases: uterine contractions and menstruation
Increases: Cell differentiation into decidual cells that control embryo implantation.
Mammary alveoli development

98
Q

Physiological changes during pregnancy, reason

A

Tidal volume increases: due to greater need for oxygen
Difficulty breathing: diaphragm being pushed
Total body water, blood, cardiac output
Kidneys produce more urine

99
Q

Physiological side effects from pregnancy

A

Heartburn, constipation, stretch marks, changes in pigmentation

100
Q

Hormonal induction of false labor (Braxton-Hicks contractions)

A

Estrogen increase from placenta induces oxytocin receptors on uterus

101
Q

Hormonal induction of true labor contractions

A

Cervical stretching increases Oxytocin secretion. This stimulates Prostaglandin release which stimulates more contractions. (positive feedback loop)

102
Q

Three stages of labor

A

Dilation stage, expulsion stage, placental stage

103
Q

Neurulation definition

A

Process in which some of the ectoderm in the embryo develops into the neural tube

104
Q

Process of neurulation

A

The mesoderm forms a notochord. A groove forms in the center of the thick neural plate. The folds converge and form the neural tube.

105
Q

Major tissues derived from endoderm

A

Lining of digestive tract, liver, pancreas

106
Q

Major tissues derived from mesoderm

A

Circulatory system, skeletal system, muscular system

107
Q

Major tissues from ectoderm

A

Hair, skin, nails, nervous system

108
Q

Parts of pre-embryonic stage, length

A

2 weeks.
Week 1: fertilization, blastocyst formation
Week 2: Implantation

109
Q

Parts of embryonic stage, description, length

A

Organogenesis: differentiation of the germ layers
Weeks 3-8
Week 3: Gastrulation and neurulation
Week 4: embryonic folding
Week 8: transition to fetal stage

110
Q

Embryonic folding description, week of development

A

The embryo goes from a flat disk to a tube, with the endoderm moving to the middle and the ectoderm moving around it.
Week 4

111
Q

Fetal stage definition, timing

A

Stage in which organs grow to the point of being capable of supporting life independently
Weeks 9-38

112
Q

Extraembryonic membranes, purpose

A

Amnion, chorion, yolk sac, allantois
Assist in development of the fetus

113
Q

Chorion description

A

Outermost membrane, forms the fetal placenta

114
Q

Allantois description

A

Forms the structural basis of umbilical cord. Disposes of waste products (becomes part of bladder)

115
Q

Amnion/fluid description

A

Amniotic fluid:
Protects the embryo, keeps temperature, allows movement, promotes lung development

116
Q

Yolk sac purpose

A

Embryonic blood cell production

117
Q

Placenta description, purpose

A

Feto-maternal organ: attached to uterine wall and fetus by the umbilical cord.
Acts as the respiratory, nutritive, excretory organ of the fetus.
Produces hormones of pregnancy

118
Q

Umbilical cord description

A

Houses umbilical vessels which circulate blood between the embryo and the placenta.
Allows for the transfer of oxygen and nutrients to the fetus

119
Q

Events in replicative senescence

A

Decline in mitotic potential with age due to shortening of telomeric DNA

120
Q

Events in DNA damage senescence, sources

A

Unrepaired damage: repair enzymes are not 100% efficient
Sources: external and intrinsic sources like the formation of the reactive oxygen species

121
Q

Oncogene senescence description

A

Hyperactivation of oncogenes or inactivation of tumor suppressors

122
Q

Aging effect on urinary system

A

lowers GFR

123
Q

Aging effect on CNS

A

lowers synaptic density: impairs memory, coordination, etc

124
Q

Aging effect on cardiovascular system

A

Myocardial hypertrophy, increases artery stiffness, abnormal conduction

125
Q

Dilation stage of labor

A

Cervix opens and becomes thinner (effaces)
Strong contractions, amniotic fluid is discharged

126
Q

Expulsion stage of labor time and description

A

From full cervical dilation until birth
Baby is said to be crowning when the top of the head is visible

127
Q

Placental stage of labor time and description

A

The placenta and other fetal membranes are expelled

128
Q

Puerperium definition

A

Period of about 6 weeks postpartum when the mothers reproductive organs return to the original position. Uterus shrinks and self digests cells

129
Q

Lochia definition

A

Vaginal discharge that is produced for around 10 days after birth, bloody at first

130
Q

Suspensory ligaments in breast purpose

A

attach breast to the dermis and fascia of the pectoralis major

131
Q

Cells that produce milk in mammary glands

A

Milk-producing alveoli that are lined with cuboidal lactocytes

132
Q

Lactiferous duct purposes

A

Drain each lobe, dilates to form a lactiferous sinus opening onto the nipple

133
Q

Mammary gland development at puberty, hormone involved

A

Estrogens, terminal end buds appear at the ends of lactiferous ducts

134
Q

Mammary gland development at maturity, hormones involved

A

Estrogens and progesterone, mammary ductal elongation and branching

135
Q

Mammary gland development at pregnancy, hormones involved

A

Prolactin, progesterone, placental lactogen. Alveolar buds grow and change into alveoli

136
Q

Mammary gland development at lactation, hormone

A

Prolactin. Alveoli are fully matured, and the luminal cells secrete milk

137
Q

Prolactin and oxytocin role in lactation

A

Prolactin: synthesizes milk
Oxytocin: ejects the milk by contracting myoepithelial cells

138
Q

Colostrum definition

A

Premilk fluid, fat poor, more protein and vitamin rich than true milk

Anatomy 2 (5 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions