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Anatomy 2 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Main organs of the urinary system

A

Two kidneys, two ureters, urinary bladder, urethra.

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2
Q

Functions of the kidney

A

Excretion (of metabolic wastes like urea and creatinine, also ingested toxins), regulation (water, electrolytes, acid base, arterial BP), synthetic function (secretes renin, erythropoietin, calcitrol)

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3
Q

Nephron and it’s main two parts

A

the renal corpuscle (filters the blood plasma) and the renal tubule (converts filtrate to urine)

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4
Q

Two types of nephron and location in kidney

A

Juxtamedullary (15%) - closer to medulla
Cortical (85%) - almost entirely in the cortex

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5
Q

Two main structures in the renal corpuscle

A

Bowman’s capsule: cup shaped hollow structure surrounding the glomerulus
Glomerulus: knot of capillaries wrapped by podocytes

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6
Q

Glomerular filtration

A

Process in which water and solutes in the blood plasma pass from capillaries of the glomerulus into the capsule of the nephron
Enters through the afferent arteriole and exits through the efferent arteriole.

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7
Q

Net filtration pressure

A

Total pressure that promotes filtration: GHP - (GCOP + CHP)
Glomerular Hydrostatic pressure - (glomerular colloid osmotic pressure + capsular hydrostatic pressure)

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8
Q

Function of net filtration pressure

A

In glomerulus, capillaries have higher pressure than capsule

fluids move down the pressure gradient from the blood into the capsule.

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9
Q

Three barriers that constitute the filtration membrane

A

Fenestrated endothelium of the capillary
Basement membrane of glomerulus
Filtration slits between the pedicels

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10
Q

Podocytes and pedicels

A

Podocytes line the Bowman’s capsules in nephrons. Their extensions that wrap around the capillaries (pedicels) form filtration slits.

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11
Q

Sizes of molecules that can pass through filtration membrane

A

Almost any molecule smaller than 3 nm can pass freely through the filtration membrane, those greater than 5 nm typically cannot.

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12
Q

The major nitrogenous wastes

A

Ammonia: by product of protein catabolism: toxic, converted to urea
Urea: by product of protein catabolism
Uric acid: Produced by the catabolism of nucleic acids
Creatinine: breakdown product of creatine

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13
Q

GFR (glomerular filtration rate) definition and average value

A

Amount of filtrate formed per minute by the two kidneys combined.
Male: 125 mL/min
Female: 105 mL/min

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14
Q

What happens when GFR is too high/low?

A

Too low: fluid flows sluggishly through the renal tubules, tubules will reabsorb wastes that should be eliminated in urine.

Too high: fluid flows through the tubules too rapidly for them to reabsorb water and solutes -> dehydration and electrolyte depletion

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15
Q

Intrinsic vs extrinsic controls of the GFR

A

Intrinsic: within the kidney: goal is to maintain nearly constant GFR over a wide range of pressures
Mechanisms: myogenic response

Extrinsic: system wide, requires transport in the bloodstream. Goal is to maintain systemic BP
Mechanisms: neural and hormonal

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16
Q

Myogenic mechanism

A

At high BP, the arteriole of the glomerulus will vasoconstrict to prevent blood flow into the glomerulus.
At low BP, the muscle relaxes to allow blood to flow more easily (increase GFR)
(low bp increase gfr, high bp lower blood flow)

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17
Q

Components of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System, organs which produce them

A

Angiotensogin produced by the liver
Renin secreted by juxtaglomerular cells: converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin-I.
Lungs produce ACE to convert this into angiotensin-II

(Liver angiotensogin ->kidney renin to tensin-1 -> lungs ACE to tensin-2)

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18
Q

Angiotensin II effects

A

To increase systemic BP: Promotes vasoconstriction of systemic blood vessels. Promotes aldosterone release. Stimulates thirst center.

To increase GFR: Promotes vasoconstriction of efferent arterioles

Increases release of ADH, activates Na/H antiport in PCT

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19
Q

Steps in flow of fluid from glomerulus to the papillary duct

A
  1. Proximal convoluted tubule
  2. Loop of Henle
  3. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
  4. Collecting duct (receives fluid from DCTs of several nephrons)
  5. Papillary duct
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20
Q

Flow of fluid from papillary duct to urinary bladder

A
  1. Papillary Duct
  2. minor calyx
  3. major calyx
  4. renal pelvis
  5. ureter
  6. urinary bladder
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21
Q

Three major renal processes in urine production

A

Tubular reabsorption, glomerular filtration, tubular secretion

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22
Q

Tubular reabsorption, area of highest metabolism

A

Process of selectively moving substances from the filtrate back into the blood. It reclaims almost everything filtered. Anything not reabsorbed becomes urine.
The proximal tubule is the most metabolically active part.

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23
Q

Glomerular filtration

A

Blood is filtered at the glomerulus. It produces a cell and protein free filtrate.

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24
Q

Tubular secretion

A

Process of selectively moving substances from the blood into the filtrate.

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25
Q

Two routes that substances can follow to cross tubule cells.

A

Paracellular route: between the cells.
Transcellular route: through the cells.

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26
Q

Transport maximum explanation

A

The maximum rate of reabsorption:
There are limited numbers of transport proteins, limiting the amount of solute the tubule can reabsorb. Can cause a substance to appear in the urine.

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27
Q

How does the PCT reabsorb sodium ions, other solutes, and water from the filtrate and return it to the blood.

A

Na+ Symporters and antiporters bring Na+ from the filtrate into the cells through secondary active transport. Na/K pumps generate a gradient for sodium resorption.

Solutes are moved out of the cell through facilitated diffusion.

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28
Q

Permeability of the two lines of the nephron loop

A

Descending limb: permeable to water, not solute
Ascending limb: Impermeable to water, reabsorbs solutes.

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29
Q

How does the thick ascending Loop of Henle reabsorb sodium ion?

A

Reabsorption is powered by a basolateral Na/K pump that generates low sodium concentration within the tubular epithelial cells.

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30
Q

Cotransporter responsible for reabsorbing sodium ions in the DCT

A

Aldosterone: Na/Cl cotransporter

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31
Q

Two factors that allow the kidney to produce hypertonic urine

A

A medullary osmotic gradient in the ISF of the renal medulla that drives the reabsorption of water by osmosis.

ADH increasing water permeability: facilitative water reabsorption

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32
Q

Filtrate concentration at different points of the nephron loop

A

Filtrate reaches highest concentration at the bend of the loop. Most dilute as it leaves the loop.

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33
Q

Obligatory vs facultative water reabsorption

A

Obligatory: 85% of reabsorption. Water follows solutes that have been reabsorbed by osmosis

Facultative: 15%. Water is reabsorbed in accordance with the body’s needs- regulated by hormones.

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34
Q

Normal appearance of urine and reason

A

Clear yellow, result of urobilin (breakdown of hemoglobin)

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35
Q

Brown urine reason

A

increased bilirubin (blood pigment)
Caused by hemolytic or liver disease

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36
Q

Red urine reason

A

presence of blood from UTI, trauma, kidney stones

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37
Q

Regular specific gravity of urine

A

From 1.001 (very dilute) to 1.035 (very concentrated)

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38
Q

Regular pH range of urine

A

pH of 4.5 to 8.2, usually 6 (mildly acidic)

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39
Q

Cause of sweet smelling urine

A

Type 1 diabetes

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40
Q

Cause of fishy or ammonia smelling urine

A

UTI

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41
Q

Three layers of the ureter

A

Mucosa, muscularis, adventitia

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42
Q

Main function of muscularis layer of the ureter

A

Constriction and relaxation used to propel the urine

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43
Q

Internal vs external urethral sphincter

A

Internal: smooth muscle, involuntary
External: skeletal muscle, can be voluntarily controlled.

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44
Q

Ureteric orifice

A

The slit of the ureter at the lumen of the urinary bladder

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45
Q

Receptors involved with contracting and relaxing the bladder

A

Muscarinic parasympathetic receptor enables the bladder to contract and empty the urine

Nicotinic sympathetic receptors allow the bladder to fill with urine.

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46
Q

Receptors involved in contracting the internal urethral sphincter

A

The same muscarinic receptor involved in contracting the bladder relaxes the sphincter, enabling the bladder to empty with urine.

Adrenergic sympathetic receptor allows the sphincter to constrict, letting the bladder fill with urine

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47
Q

Receptor involved in contracting the external urethral sphincter

A

Somatic nicotinic receptor allows voluntary control over voiding urine

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48
Q

Steps of the micturition reflex

A
  1. Urine stretches bladder wall
  2. Stretch receptors send signal to sacral spinal cord
  3. Parasympathetic efferent fibers relax internal sphincter
  4. Interneurons signal the full bladder signal to the pons
  5. Urine is voided if appropriate
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49
Q

Urothelium function and cell types

A

Forms a barrier to pathogens and prevents the diffusion of urinary components into underlying tissue.

From outside in:
Superficial Umbrella cells: maintain impermeability
Intermediate cells
Basal cells

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50
Q

Three regions of the male urethra

A

Prostatic urethra
Membranous urethra: transports semen and urine
Spongy (penile) urethra

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51
Q

Major cations and anions of the ECF and ICF

A

In EC fluid: Na and Cl
In IC fluid: K, P, Mg

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52
Q

How does water move from one fluid compartment to another, what is the most important solute

A

Water moves down osmotic gradients determined by relative solutes in the compartments.
The most significant solute in determining water distribution is Na+

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53
Q

Fluid excess causes, characteristics, consequences

A

Volume excess, water intoxication (rare because kidneys are effective at compensating for fluid excess)

Can cause renal failure, pulmonary and cerebral edema

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54
Q

Fluid deficiency causes, characteristics, consequences

A

Dehydration from lack of water, diabetes, profuse sweating. Causes volume depletion and total body water goes down.

Can cause vomiting and diarrhea, circulatory shock, neurological dysfunction.

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55
Q

Where is the thirst center located, factors that influence it

A

In the hypothalamus. Water deficit, high osmolarity, low BP increase thirst. Low osmolarity and water excess lower thirst.

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56
Q

Two ways to control water output

A

Natriuretic peptides and aldosterone.

Antidiuretic hormone.

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57
Q

CD cells function

A

Create aquaporins: allow kidneys to reabsorb more water and produce less urine

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58
Q

Role of ADH in the response to dehydration

A

Increases water reabsorption, decreases plasma osmolarity, increases blood pressure

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59
Q

Five actions of natriuretic peptides on Na+ excretion and renal function

A

Effects on zona glomerulosa
Dilation of Afferent arteriole
Lowers renin production
Decreases sodium and water absorption in kidney
Reduces ADH secretion and action on kidney

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60
Q

Aldosterone role in adjusting Na/K excretion in the renal tubule

A

Acts on the late distal tubule and collecting duct of the nephrons: favoring sodium and water reabsorption and potassium excretion.

61
Q

Another name for ADH

A

Arginine Vasopressin (AVP)

62
Q

Volatile vs fixed acids

A

Volatile acid: produced from CO2 (carbonic acid)
Fixed: acids produced from anything else

63
Q

How is blood pH kept within a narrow range

A

Buffer systems in the body:
Chemical buffers (within seconds)
Physiological buffers:
Respiratory (min to hours)
Urinary (most efficient but slowest)

64
Q

Definition of chemical buffer

A

Single or paired set of molecules that resist pH change by releasing or binding H+

65
Q

3 major chemical buffer systems

A

Bicarbonate, phosphate, and protein systems

66
Q

How do protein buffer systems neutralize acid/bases

A

Amino group is a base -> can accept h+ and prevent acidosis
Carboxyl group is acid -> can release h+ to lower pH

67
Q

Components of carbonic acid-bicarbonate system

A

Solution of carbonic acid (acid) and bicarbonate (base)
Carbonic acid can release H+ to lower pH and bicarbonate can bind H+ and increase pH

68
Q

Influence of respiratory system on pH balance

A

Disposes of volatile acid by eliminating CO2 by breathing deeper or more frequently

69
Q

Influence of urinary system on pH

A

Changing the rate of fixed acid excretion by secreting more/absorbing more of bicarbonate ion

70
Q

How is respiratory acidosis/alkalosis produced

A

low respiratory rate will produce more H+ (resp. acidosis)

High respiratory rate will decrease CO2 to decrease H+ (resp. alkalosis)

71
Q

How do kidneys regulate H+ and bicarbonate in the blood

A

Nonvolatile acids can only be eliminated by the kidneys.

Na/H antiporter in PCT reabsorbs bicarbonate to excrete H+ in the urine.

Distal tubule uses H+ ATPase and H+/K ATPase to excrete H+

72
Q

Acidosis disorders and their causes

A

Respiratory: caused by decreased ventilation (increase of CO2)
Metabolic: can be caused by diarrhea (loss of bases), renal failure (gain of acids)

73
Q

Alkalosis disorders and causes

A

Respiratory: hyperventilation, caused by high altitude or anxiety
Metabolic: excess bicarbonate or loss of acids, caused by vomiting, antacids

74
Q

How do the lungs and kidneys compensate for pH imbalance

A

Lungs: changes in breathing rate and depth (alters CO2 levels ->pH changes)

Kidneys: change blood levels of bicarbonate and H+ to change pH

75
Q

Accessory organs of digestive system

A

teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

76
Q

Alimentary Canal

A

The digestive tract from mouth to anus

77
Q

Major organs of the digestive tract

A

Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines

78
Q

Peritoneum definitions and its layers

A

Serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers organs within it
Parietal, visceral layers and a cavity

79
Q

Parietal peritoneum

A

lines the internal surface of abdominal and pelvic wall

80
Q

Visceral peritoneum

A

lines the walls of organs

81
Q

Peritoneal cavity

A

contains serous fluid produced by the serous membranes of the peritoneum: decreases friction

82
Q

Ascites

A

Swelling caused by accumulation of peritoneal fluid

83
Q

Four layers of the digestive tract, inner to outer

A

Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis propria, adventitia/serosa

84
Q

adventitia vs serosa

A

Adventitia: in oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, rectum
Serosa: visceral peritoneum

85
Q

Enteric NS and the two plexuses

A

GI tracts own nervous system. System is embedded in the walls of the tract and has two nerve networks (plexus)
Submucosal and myenteric plexus

86
Q

Submucosal/Meissner’s plexus

A

Located in the submucosa. Functions in GI secretions and blood flow (submucosal = secretions)

87
Q

Myenteric/Averbach’s plexus

A

Between the circular and longitudinal layers of the muscularis. Controls GI movement (myenteric = motility)

88
Q

Short (myenteric) reflexes

A

mediated entirely by the enteric NS plexus in response to stimuli within the GI tract

89
Q

Long (vagovagal) reflexes

A

Involve CNS integration centers

90
Q

Parasympathetic inputs on the GI tract

A

Inputs enhance digestive activity: motility and secretion

91
Q

Peristalsis vs segmentation

A

Peristalsis: alternating waves of smooth muscle contraction. Results in the propulsion of materials through the GI tract

Segmentation: moving material back and forth to mix undigested material

92
Q

Major processes of the digestive system

A

Ingestion, digestion, propulsion, absorption, defecation

93
Q

Digestion process

A

The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food

94
Q

Propulsion in digestion

A

movement of the food down the body

95
Q

Absorption in digestion

A

Uptake of nutrient molecules into the epithelial cells of the GI tract then into the blood/lymph

96
Q

Compaction in digestion

A

Absorbing water and consolidating indigestible residue into feces

97
Q

Tongue role in digestion

A

secretes enzymes, initiates swallowing, breaks up food

98
Q

Four types of teeth

A

(1 root): incisor, canine,
1-2 roots: premolar,
molar (3 roots)

99
Q

Cementum location and purpose in teeth

A

Bone-like material, covers the roots

100
Q

Dentin location and purpose in teeth

A

Yellowish tissue, bulk of the teeth (below enamel)

101
Q

Pulp location and purpose in teeth

A

Innermost layer: mass of loose connective tissue, blood, nerves.
Forms dentin (odontoblasts)

102
Q

Major (extrinsic) salivary glands vs minor

A

Major: Secrete 1-1.5 liters of saliva
minor: much smaller, constant rate of secretion, lower amount

103
Q

Saliva composition and function

A

~99% water
Amylase: begins starch digestion
Mucus: binds and lubricates food
Lysozyme: kills bacteria
Lipase: begins fat digestion

104
Q

Upper vs lower esophageal sphincter

A

Upper: physiological (not necessarily an anatomical structure) Protects against reflux of food into the airways
Lower (cardiac): ring shaped muscle, prevents the esophagus from reflux of gastric contents

105
Q

Phases of swallowing

A

Oral: voluntary control, food is pushed into the pharynx
Pharyngeal phase: involuntary, bolus is moved through to the esophagus
Esophageal: Bolus is pushed toward stomach by peristalsis

106
Q

Duodenum main functions

A

Neutralize acidic chyme, mix chyme, pancreatic juice, bile.
Duodenal glands secrete bicarbonate rich mucus.

107
Q

Jejunum main function

A

Most digestion and nutrient absorption occurs

108
Q

Ileum main function

A

Absorption of B12 and reabsorption of bile salts

109
Q

Where does the small intestine start and end?

A

Starts at pyloric sphincter at the beginning of the stomach, ends at the ileocecal valve at the start of the large intestine.

110
Q

Three structures that increase small intestine surface area and their purpose

A

Circular folds, villi on the folds, microvilli on each intestinal cell.
Purpose is for nutrient absorption

111
Q

Five major types of cells found in the mucosal epithelium

A

Goblet cells, enterocytes, enteroendocrine cells, paneth cells, stem cells

112
Q

Role of enterocytes in the villi and the crypts

A

In the villi: reabsorb nutrients and electrolytes
In the crypts: secrete intestinal juice (water and mucus)

113
Q

Enteroendocrine cell purpose

A

Secrete hormones secretin and CCK

114
Q

Paneth cells purpose

A

release antimicrobial agents

115
Q

Two major functions of the large intestine

A

Absorb important vitamin and compact contents into feces.

116
Q

Purpose of intestinal crypts

A

Contain a lot of goblet cells, the mucus eases the passage of feces and protects the intestine from acid

117
Q

Main difference between the mucosa of large/small intestine and why

A

Large intestine lacks villi; because most food is absorbed before reaching the large intestine

118
Q

Subdivisions of the large intestine and their order from cecum to rectum

A

Ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon.

119
Q

Three parts of the large intestine colons and description

A

Haustra: series of sacs that allow for expansion of the colon
Taenia coli: Bands of the muscle that pucker the wall
Omental appendages: sacs of fat

120
Q

Segmentation description, frequency and purpose

A

aka Haustral contractions: happen every 30 min, passes feces through the haustra and maximizes water/electrolyte absorption

121
Q

Mass peristalsis description, frequency, and purpose

A

Slow (3 to 4 times a day), powerful contractions that move undigested waste to the rectum for defecation

122
Q

Internal vs external anal sphincter

A

Internal: smooth muscle, involuntary
External: outer skeletal muscle layer, voluntary

123
Q

Defecation reflex description

A

Feces move into and stretch the rectum, stimulating stretch receptors, which transmit signals to the spinal cord.
Spinal reflex initiated by parasympathetic motor fibers from contracting the rectum

124
Q

Gut microbiome definition and role

A

Definition: The gut microbiome is the collection of ~800 bacteria, species in the large intestine. Can also include fungi, parasites, viruses.
Purpose: Prevents overgrowth of harmful bacteria, digest cellulose and other plant matter, reabsorbs the sugars

125
Q

Four regions of the stomach

A

Fundus, body, pylorus, antrum

126
Q

Purpose of pyloric part of the stomach, structures within it

A

Thick ring of smooth muscle that regulates the passage of chyme into the duodenum

Composed of the antrum, pyloric canal and sphincter, and pylorus.

127
Q

Layers of muscularis externa of the stomach, purpose

A

Longitudinal, circular, and oblique muscle. These layers allow the stomach to breakdown food.

128
Q

Mechanisms that prevent the stomach from the harsh acidic/enzymatic environment

A

Epithelial cell replacement, mucous bicarbonate barrier, and epithelial tight junctions.

Mucous coat: Bicarbonate neutralizes stomach acid
Tight junctions: prevent gastric juice from seeping out
Cell replacement: Every 3 to 6 days, damage cells are replaced by differentiating stem cells

129
Q

Types of epithelial cells of the gastric and pyloric glands

A

Mucous neck cells, chief cells, parietal cells, G cells, enteroendocrine cells

130
Q

Secretion of mucous neck cells and the purpose

A

Secrete mucus and bicarbonate to create the mucous bicarbonate barrier: neutralizes pH of stomach

131
Q

Secretion of parietal cells and purpose

A

Secretes Gastric acid: activates enzymes, destroys pathogens, reduces dietary iron to usable form

Intrinsic factor: aids in Vitamin B12 absorption

132
Q

Secretion of chief cells and purpose

A

Pepsinogen: activated by HCl to become pepsin which digests proteins
Gastric lipase: digests fat

133
Q

Secretion of G cells and the purpose

A

Gastrin: increases acid secretion

134
Q

Secretion of enteroendocrine cells and their purpose

A

Secrete hormones, enterochromaffin specifically secretes histamine

135
Q

How do parietal cells produce hydrochloric acid

A

Inside parietal cells, carbonic acid breaks down and produces H+ ions

The H+/K+ ATPase proton pump exchanges H+ into the gastric lumen

Inside the lumen, H+ and Cl- form HCl

136
Q

Neural factor that stimulates HCl production and how it is secreted

A

ACh, secreted by parasympathetic nerve fibers

137
Q

Paracrine secretion that stimulates HCl production

A

Histamine

138
Q

Hormonal factor that stimulates HCl production

A

Gastrin

139
Q

Three phases of gastric acid secretion

A

Cephalic phase, gastric phase, intestinal phase

140
Q

Cephalic phase description, plexus, NS branch

A

Begins at the thought or sight of food, parasympathetic vagus nerve, submucosal plexus

141
Q

Gastric phase description

A

distention of stomach activates stretch receptors, gastrin secretion

142
Q

Functional unit of the liver and it’s structure

A

A lobule: consists of a central vein surrounded by hepatocytes

143
Q

Stellate cell purpose, organ it is located in

A

Liver lobule: major storage site for vitamin A. If liver is damaged, creates scars

144
Q

Bile pathway and cells involved

A

Bile is produced by hepatocytes, secreted into canaliculi.
In the bile duct, it is modified by cholangiocytes. They increase the secretion of bicarbonate and water, increasing the volume and flow of bile

145
Q

CCK role in bile production and release

A

Helps the gallbladder contract and store bile, helps release bile into the duodenum

146
Q

Composition and secretion of pancreatic juice

A

Exocrine portion of digestion produces the juice
Bicarbonate rich fluid containing enzymes to digest food.
Carried to duodenum by pancreatic duct

147
Q

pancreatic duct cell purpose

A

Secrete watery, bicarbonate rich fluid

148
Q

Pancreatic acinar cells purpose

A

Secrete the enzyme rich component of pancreatic juice

149
Q

Zymogen granule purpose

A

Contain inactive enzymes, converted to active enzymes after secretion

Anatomy 2 (5 decks)

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