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BIOL 322 > exam 4 > Flashcards

exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

In individuals on a very low carbohydrate, high fat (ketogenic) diet the liver produces ketones, which enter the blood. Ketones are acidic. You would expect someone on a ketogenic diet to have _____________________arterial PCO2 compared to individuals on a standard American diet.

A

Lower

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2
Q

The primary determinate of hemoglobin saturation is

A

PO2

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3
Q

Which of the following would increase the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen? (select all that apply)
Increase temperature
Increase the PCO2
Increase pH
Increase conc. Of DPG

A

Increasing pH

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4
Q

Which of the following values is/are zero in healthy individuals? (select all that apply)
Oncotic pressure in Bowman’s capsule
Oncotic pressure in the glomerulus
Hydrostatic pressure in Bowman’s capsule
Hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus

A

Oncotic pressure in bowman’s capsule

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5
Q

what PO2 would cause a substantial increase in minute ventilation over normal levels

A

less than 60 mmHg

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6
Q

what PCO2 would cause a substantial increase in minute ventilation over normal levels

A

greater than 40 mmHg

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7
Q

Excessive water consumption during exercise or mental stress can lead to death by

A

hyponatremia

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8
Q

The urinary bladder stretch receptor afferent neuron is

A

glutamatergic

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9
Q

Activation of the urinary bladder stretch receptor leads, directly or indirectly, to

A

inactivation of the sympathetic and somatic
activation of the parasympathetic

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10
Q

Activation of the urinary bladder stretch receptor directly leads to

A

activation of the parasympathetic

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11
Q

If a substance is freely filtered in the renal corpuscle, and its concentration in the afferent arteriole is 35 mg/ml, what is its concentration in Bowman’s capsule in mg/ml?

A

35 mg/ml

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12
Q

The location with the highest osmolarity in the body is

A

the inner renal pyramids

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13
Q

V2 vasopressin receptors are located in

A

cortical collecting ducts
medullary collecting ducts

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14
Q

Mineralocorticoid receptors are found in

A

distal convoluted tubules
cortical collecting ducts

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15
Q

aldosterone does what to sodium

A

increases sodium reabsorption

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16
Q

Atrial natriuretic factor does what to sodium

A

decreases sodium reabsorption
increases sodium filtration

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17
Q

Reabsorption of bicarbonate ion occurs in all segments of the nephron EXCEPT

A

descending loop of Henle

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18
Q

Aldosterone in the kidney does what to potassium

A

stimulates potassium secretion

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19
Q

Calcium excretion is regulated in the

A

distal convoluted tubule
cortical collecting duct

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20
Q

Regulation of renal phosphate excretion occurs in the

A

proximal convoluted tubule

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21
Q

Parathyroid hormone does what

A

decreases phosphate reabsorption
increases calcium reabsorption

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22
Q

T OR F: in healthy people, the renal excretion of glucose varies w/ glucose intake

A

false (there is unregulated reabsorption of glucose in healthy ppl)

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23
Q

the fenestrae in glomerular capillaries are __ than in most other capillary beds

A

larger

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24
Q

as plasma flows through the glomerular capillary there is largest

A

increase in oncotic pressure

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25
Q

net filtration pressure at the end of the glomerular capillary is usually

A

zero

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26
Q

the entire plasma volume is normally filtered how frequently

A

60 times per day

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27
Q

changing the level of smooth muscle activity in the afferent and/or efferent arterioles changes what

A

changes glomerular hydrostatic pressure

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28
Q

in non-regulated reabsorption, usually ___ of a filterest substance gets reabsorbed in the nephron

A

all

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29
Q

which of the following would tend to increase glomerular filtration rate

A

afferent arteriole vasodilation
efferent arteriole vasoconstriction

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30
Q

__ and anything bound to them in the plasma will not be filtered in to Bowman’s capsule

A

protein

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31
Q

__ and anything bound to them in the plasma will not be filtered in to Bowman’s capsule

A

proteins

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32
Q

approx what percent of the CO2 produced by cells stays in the blood as dissolved CO2

A

10%

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33
Q

approx what percent of the CO2 produced by cells binds to hemoglobin in the blood

A

30%

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34
Q

what is the name for hemoglobin that has CO2 bound to it

A

carbaminohemoglobin

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35
Q

normal body pH

A

7.4

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36
Q

venous blood pH

A

7.36

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37
Q

approx how much of the plasma that enters a glomerulus is usually filtered into Bowman’s capsule

A

20%

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38
Q

what protein buffers blood pH by binding to hydrogen ions

A

deoxyhemoglobin

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39
Q

where, specifically, do you find the rhythm-generation neurons for respiration

A

pre-Botzinger complex

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40
Q

what organ makes DPG and what stimulates its release into the blood

A

kidney in response to low oxygen delivery

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41
Q

what are the names of the areas in the pons that regulate breathing

A

pneumotaxic center
apneustic center

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42
Q

where specifically do you find the peripheral chemoreceptors

A

aortic bodies
carotid bodies

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43
Q

peripheral chemoreceptors are directly sensitive to which two chemicals in the blood

A

oxygen and hydrogen

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44
Q

what effect do the pontine respiratory regions have on breathing

A

smooths the transition from inspiration to expiration and back to inspiration

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45
Q

what three variables determine the glomerular filtration rate

A

net filtration pressure
surface area available for filtration
permeability of corpuscular membranes

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46
Q

what is the equation for renal excretion based on the three basic renal processes

A

filtered + secreted - reabsorbed

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47
Q

what happens to the CO2 produced by cells and transported in the blood that does not stay dissolved or bound to hemoglobin

A

carbon dioxide is converted to bicarbonate ion (CO2+H2O equilibrium to H2CO3 via carbonic anhydrase equilibrium to HCO3- + H+)

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48
Q

what happens in the chloride shift in red blood cells

A

chloride is exchanged for HCO3- across the red blood cell plasma membrane

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49
Q

what are the five functions of the kidney that were mentioned in the video

A

regulates water and inorganic ion balance
removal of metabolic waste products
removal of foreign chemicals
gluconeogenesis
produces hormones/enzymes

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50
Q

what is the mechanism of action and effect of mesangial cells in the kidney

A

they contract around and close off glomeruli to decrease surface area for filtration

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51
Q

filtered load is calculated by

A

GFR * plasma concentration

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52
Q

excretion rate calculated by

A

concentration in urine * rate of urine collection (needs to be a number between 1-1000)

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53
Q

T OR F: increasing sodium consumption significantly increases blood pressure in most people

A

false

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54
Q

T OR F: how sodium gets across the apical membrane of kidney tubular cells varies depending on the segment of the tubule

A

true

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55
Q

T OR F: how sodium gets across the basolateral membrane of kidney tubular cells varies depending on the segment of the tubule

A

false

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56
Q

T OR F: water is actively reabsorbed by the kidney

A

false (water only moves by osmosis)

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57
Q

as sodium is reabsorbed, how does the osmolarity change in both the tubule and in the blood

A

tubule osmolarity decreases and blood osmolarity increase

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58
Q

activation of the ___ nervous system leads to micturition

A

parasympathetic

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59
Q

contraction of the detrusor muscle does what to urinary bladder compliance and pressure

A

decrease urinary bladder compliance and increases pressure

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60
Q

most water-soluble vitamins (are they filtered in kidney and how are they reabsorbed)

A

are filtered in the kidney and reabsorbed by transporters

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61
Q

sodium is reabsorbed in

A

ascending loop of henle
cortical collecting ducts
distal convoluted tubule
proximal convoluted tubule

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62
Q

sodium is NOT reabsorbed in

A

descending loop of Henle
medullary collecting ducts

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63
Q

reabsorption of many substances in the kidney is tied to the reabsorption of what ion

A

sodium

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64
Q

secretion of many substances in the kidney is tied to reabsorption of what ion

A

sodium

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65
Q

what nerve carries out post-ganglionic sympathetic axons toward the urinary bladder/sphincters

A

hypogastric

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66
Q

what nerve carries pre-ganglionic parasympathetic axons toward the urinary bladder/sphincters

A

pelvic nerve

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67
Q

what nerve carries alpha motor neuron axons toward the urinary bladder/sphincters

A

pudendal nerve

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68
Q

what nerve carries alpha motor neuron axons toward the urinary bladder/sphincters

A

pudendal nerve

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69
Q

what receptor for sympathetic nervous system/circulating epinephrine is present on the internal urinary sphincter and what type is it

A

alpha-1 adrenergic (Gq PCR)

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70
Q

what receptor for the sympathetic nervous system/circulating epinephrine is present on the detrusor muscle and what type is it

A

beta-2 adrenergic (Gs PCR)

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71
Q

what nerve carries urinary bladder stretch receptor afferents to the spinal cord

A

pelvic nerve

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72
Q

what receptor for the parasympathetic nervous system is present on the internal urinary sphincter, what type is it

A

M2 muscarinic (Gi PCR)

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73
Q

what receptor for the parasympathetic nervous system is present on the detrusor muscle and what type is it

A

M3 muscarinic (Gq PCR)

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74
Q

the micturition reflex cannot consciously be controlled until children are about how old

A

about 2 years

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75
Q

what is the name of the channel for sodium in the apical membrane of distal convoluted tubular cells

A

ENaC channel

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76
Q

substance is freely filtered in renal corpuscle, what is the concentration in the efferent arteriole vs. the afferent

A

they are equal (and equal to the concentration in bowman’s capsule)

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77
Q

substance is freely-filtered, not secreted, not reabsorbed, what is the clearance equal to

A

clearance is = to GFR

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78
Q

equation for clearance

A

clearance = (urine concentration of substance * urine volume)/plasma concentration of substance

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79
Q

if clearance is less than the GFR then there is net ___

A

reabsorption

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80
Q

what are the three substances normally excreted from the body that contain sodium (and which has the greatest variation in the amount of sodium excreted based on needs of the body)

A

urine (most variation bc regulated)
sweat
feces

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81
Q

what are the four locations where water is normally lost from the body (which is regulated to control total body water)

A

urine (regulated)
feces
sweat
respiration

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82
Q

what are four conditions mentioned in the video that can lead to greater than normal sodium and water loss

A

severe sweating
hemorrhage
vomiting
diarrhea

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83
Q

physiological definition of clearance

A

the volume of plasma completely cleared of a particular substance per unit of time

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84
Q

T OR F: decreasing mean arterial pressure decreases hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus

A

true

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85
Q

T OR F: atrial natriuretic factor stimulates aldosterone production

A

false

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86
Q

T OR F: atrial natriuretic factor is not usually important in regulating sodium in the body of healthy people

A

true

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87
Q

T OR F: increases in blood pressure can increase sodium reabsorption directly

A

false

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88
Q

vasopressinergic neurons are more sensitive to changes in __ around the normal range

A

osmolarity

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89
Q

vasopressin is released in response to

A

high body osmolarity

90
Q

stress tends to do what to vasopressin

A

increase vasopressin release

91
Q

the arterial end of renal vasa recta capillaries absorbs __ solute than water

A

more

92
Q

normally, __ of the sodium filtered is excreted in the urine

A

a variable amount

93
Q

activation of the sympathetic nervous system to the kidney ____ glomerular filtration rate

A

decreases

94
Q

as filtrate travels up a juxtamedullary loop of Henle, its osmolarity ____ as _____ are ____

A

osmolarity decreases as ions are reabsorbed

95
Q

the greatest osmolarity difference that can develop across a tubular cell apical membrane in the loop of Henle is about

A

200 mOsm

96
Q

sodium is actively transported across ___ of ascending loop of Henle tubular cells

A

the basolateral membrane

97
Q

potassium is actively transported across ___ of ascending loop of Henle tubular cells

A

both the apical and basolateral membranes

98
Q

chloride is actively transported across ____ of ascending loop of Henle tubular cells

A

the apical membrane

99
Q

the countercurrent systems in the kidney can create an interstitium osmolarity of up to about

A

700 mOsm

100
Q

in the kidney, sodium is

A

freely filtered and reabsorbed

101
Q

the sympathetic nervous system causes (___ arteriole vaso__)

A

afferent arteriole vasoconstriction
no effect on efferent

102
Q

atrial natriuretic factor causes (___ arteriole vaso___)

A

afferent arteriole vasodilation
efferent arteriole vasoconstriction

103
Q

when more water is reabsorbed in the medullary collecting duct (effect on sodium and urea?)

A

more urea is reabsorbed
(sodium is independent of water in this segment)

104
Q

a decrease in total body sodium, without a change in total body water will do what to blood volume

A

decrease blood volume

105
Q

which adrenergic receptor is present on renal arteriolar smooth muscle

A

alpha-1 adrenergic receptor

106
Q

what type of receptor is the V2 vasopressin receptor

A

Gs PCR

107
Q

what type of receptor is the mineralocorticoid receptor

A

intracellular receptor

108
Q

what is the specific water channel that can be on the apical membrane of a collecting duct tubule cell

A

aquaporin-2

109
Q

which type of nephrons help create the hypertonic interstitium in the renal pyramids

A

juxtamedullary nephrons

110
Q

what is the rate-limiting enzyme in the production of angiotensin II

A

renin

111
Q

what word means increase sodium in the urine

A

natriuresis

112
Q

what solute is the most concentrated in the urine

A

urea

113
Q

where is vasopressin released into the blood

A

posterior pituitary

114
Q

what hormone was mentioned in the video as a stimulator of aldosterone production

A

angiotensin II

115
Q

what organ and part of that organ produces aldosterone

A

adrenal cortex

116
Q

where specifically is vasopressin made

A

supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus (both of the hypothalamus)

117
Q

which three ions are transported by the co-transporter on the apical membrane of ascending loop of Henle tubular cells

A

Na+, K+, Cl-

118
Q

three genes whose transcription increases with the activation of the mineralocorticoid receptor

A

ENaC
Na+/K+ pump
apical K+ leak channels

119
Q

describe the mechanism of action for caffeine as a diuretic

A

inhibits the release of vasopressin

120
Q

what does countercurrent mean in renal physiology

A

liquid flows through tubes with hairpin loops so that the liquid flows in opposite directions right next to each other

121
Q

which two structures in the kidney have a countercurrent

A

loop of Henle and vasa recta

122
Q

T OR F: almost all of the potassium in the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule and loop of Henle

A

true

123
Q

T OR F: usually more water and electrolytes are secreted into the digestive tract each day than are consumed

A

true

124
Q

T OR F: if the kidney reabsorbs all of the bicarbonate ion from the tubule, it will stop the secretion of hydrogen ion

A

false

125
Q

T OR F: buffers remove hydrogen from the body

A

false, they can bind to it

126
Q

higher consumption of potassium is associated with ___ blood pressure

A

lower

127
Q

the secretion of hydrogen across the apical membrane of renal tubular cells is

A

active

128
Q

the reabsorption of bicarbonate ion across the basolateral membrane of tubular cells is

A

passive

129
Q

carbonic acid is a ___ acid

A

weak acid

130
Q

which organ system can respond quicker to changes in blood pH (pulmonary or urinary?)

A

pulmonary

131
Q

if you have acidosis and both blood CO2 and bicarbonate levels are low, what is the cause of the acidosis (kidneys or lungs)?

A

kidneys

132
Q

if you have alkalosis and both blood CO2 and bicarbonate levels are low, what is the cause of the alkalosis (kidneys or lungs)

A

lungs

133
Q

tubular cells in all segments of the nephron have potassium channels on ___ membrane

A

their basolateral

134
Q

increasing blood potassium levels directly __

A

increases potassium secretion

135
Q

most of the regulation of the final composition of the urine occurs in the

A

distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts

136
Q

bicarbonate ion is a

A

weak base

137
Q

in the kidney, calcium is

A

reabsorbed

138
Q

in the kidney, phosphate is

A

reabsorbed

139
Q

phosphoric acid and sulfuric acid result from the breakdown of __ in the body

A

proteins

140
Q

what hormone is the primary regulator of potassium in the kidney

A

aldosterone

141
Q

scientific word for chewing

A

mastication

142
Q

what ion can directly stimulate the release of aldosterone

A

potassium

143
Q

what abnormal condition can lead to alkalosis if not compensated for

A

vomiting

144
Q

what abnormal condition can lead to acidosis if not compensated for

A

diarrhea

145
Q

what two hormones are the primary regulators of calcium excretion by kidney

A

vitamin D
parathyroid hormone

146
Q

what are the three stimuli for thirst

A

increased blood osmolarity
decreased plasma volume
dry mouth/throat

147
Q

which stimulus for thirst may involve angiotensin II

A

decreased plasma volume

148
Q

most common forms of carbohydrates consumed
which of these can be absorbed

A

starch, disaccharides, monosaccharides
monosaccharides absorbed

149
Q

what form of proteins can be absorbed

A

amino acids

150
Q

most common forms of lipids consumed
which can be absorbed?

A

triglycerides
monoglycerides + free fatty acids can be absorbed

151
Q

the circadian rhythm of gastric acid secretion leads to a ___ stomach luminal pH in the morning

A

higher

152
Q

there is no strong evidence that the sympathetic nervous system innervates anything in the digestive tract except

A

blood vessels

153
Q

contraction that moves material through digestive tract by a wave that moves distally through the organ

A

peristalsis

154
Q

what protein moves hydrogen across the apical membrane of a parietal cell

A

H+/K+ pump

155
Q

what protein moves chloride across the basolateral membrane of a parietal cell

A

Cl-/HCO3- exchanger

156
Q

what is the primary purpose of stomach acid

A

kill pathogens

157
Q

gastric phase of gastric acid secretion is primarily dependent on which secretagogue of gastric acid

A

gastrin

158
Q

what type of receptor is the M4 muscarinic receptor

A

Gi PCR

159
Q

which two nerves carry parasympathetic pre-ganglion neurons to the gut

A

vagus nerve
pelvic nerve

160
Q

two secretagogues for histamine in the stomach

A

gastrin
acetylcholine

161
Q

two effects the secretagogues for gastric acid have in the parietal cell that lead to the secretion

A

cause insertion of the tubulovesicles containing the H+/K+ pumps into the apical plasma membrane
increases activity of the H+/K+ pumps

162
Q

names of the two enteric plexes, where is each located in the walls of the GI tract

A

myenteric plexus - between the longitudinal and circular muscularis externa
submucosal plexus - between the submucosa and the muscularis externa

163
Q

two inhibitors of acid secretion that act on the parietal cell
what type of receptor does each act on

A

somatostatin and prostaglandins
both act on Gi PCRs

164
Q

two other ways that somatostatin and prostaglandin decrease gastric acid secretion (besides direct effects)

A

inhibit gastrin and histamine secretion

165
Q

stimuli for acetylcholine secretion onto parietal and ECL cells

A

smell, taste, thought of food, tactile sensation of food in the mouth
gastric distension

166
Q

stimuli for gastrin release into the blood

A

peptides in lumen of antrum
gastrin releasing peptide

167
Q

three phases of gastric acid secretion in response to meal (and what percent of total acid in each phase)

A

cephalic (30%)
gastric (50-60%)
intestinal (5-10%)

168
Q

what is the mechanism for the cephalic phase of gastric acid secretion

A

acetylcholine release from activation of vagus nerve onto ECL and parietal cells + gastrin releasing peptide on G cells

169
Q

steps of deglutition

A

voluntary phase - tongue pushes bolus toward pharynx
pharyngeal phase - soft palate moves up, elevation of pharynx, bolus push epiglottis down, open upper esophageal sphincter
esophageal phase - peristaltic contractions, lower esophageal sphincter opens

170
Q

secretagogues of gastric acid

A

gastrin, acetylcholine, histamine

171
Q

what receptor does gastrin act on and what type of receptor is it

A

CCKB - Gq PCR

172
Q

what receptor does acetylcholine act on and what type of receptor is it

A

M3 muscarinic - Gq PCR

173
Q

what receptor does histamine act on and what type of receptor is it

A

H2 - Gs PCR

174
Q

The primary central input to the enteric nervous system comes from the ________________ nervous system.

A

parasympathetic

175
Q

Relaxation of the fundus during gastric accommodation is dependent on

A

the vagus nerve

176
Q

Which cells release somatostatin?

A

D cells

177
Q

What receptor for acetylcholine is on D cells

A

M4 muscarinic receptor

178
Q

hemoglobin has ___ affinity for oxygen in the pulmonary capillaries versus the systemic capillaries

A

higher

179
Q

carbonic anhydrase is found

A

in red blood cells but not the plasma

180
Q

T OR F: carbon dioxide binds covalently to hemoglobin

A

FALSE

181
Q

hyperventilation leads to respiratory ___

A

alkalosis

182
Q

inspiratory neurons are found in the

A

both the dorsal and ventral respiratory groups

183
Q

expiratory neurons are found in the

A

ventral respiratory group

184
Q

T OR F: lung stretch receptors are important regulators of breath depth at rest

A

false

185
Q

central chemoreceptors respond (directly or indirectly) to changes in which arterial blood chemicals

A

carbon dioxide

186
Q

what is the primary organ to do gluconeogenesis in the body

A

liver

187
Q

all epithelial cells have the sodium-potassium pump in

A

their basolateral membrane

188
Q

in non-regulated reabsorption, the substance

A

may appear in the urine if the blood concentration is high enough

189
Q

T OR F: the renal clearance of all freely-filtered substances equals the glomerular filtration rate

A

false

190
Q

the clearance of creatinine is ___ related to the glomerular filtration rate

A

greater than the GFR

191
Q

the internal urinary sphincter is innervated by

A

sympathetic nervous system

192
Q

the parasympathetic nervous system innervates the (muscles of the bladder?)

A

detrusor muscle and internal urinary sphincter

193
Q

the somatic nervous system innervates the (muscles of the bladder)

A

external urinary sphincter

194
Q

aquaporin-2 can be found

A

inside the tubule cell
the apical membrane of a tubule cell

195
Q

the V2 vasopressin receptor can be found

A

basolateral membrane of a tubule cell

196
Q

vasopressin causes water channels to move from

A

intracellular vesicles to the apical membrane

197
Q

T OR F: all cells always have aquaporin channels in their plasma membrane

A

true

198
Q

vasopressin does what to water in the kidney

A

increases water reabsorption in the kidney

199
Q

low vasopressin levels leads to

A

water diuresis

200
Q

diabetes mellitus is associated with

A

osmotic diuresis

201
Q

T OR F: the highest osmolarity the urine can have is close to 300 mOsm

A

false

202
Q

T OR F: all the loops of Henle participate in creating a hypertonic interstitium in the renal pyramids

A

false

203
Q

as filtrate travels down a long loop of Henle

A

its osmolarity increases as water is reabsorbed

204
Q

sweat is __osmotic

A

hypoosmotic

205
Q

the primary stimulus for thirst in most situations is

A

high body osmolarity

206
Q

T OR F: if you are thirsty and drink water, you will stop feeling thirsty before your osmolarity returns to normal

A

true

207
Q

changes in blood potassium levels has the biggest effect on the

A

heart

208
Q

it is more important for our survival to regulate ___ levels

A

potassium levels

209
Q

in the kidney, potassium is

A

freely filtered, reabsorbed, secreted

210
Q

in order to regulate blood potassium concentration, renal ___ of potassium is regulated

A

secretion

211
Q

in the kidney, bicarbonate ion is

A

freely filtered, reabsorbed, secreted

212
Q

increasing extracellular potassium causes cells to

A

depolarize

213
Q

T OR F: enteric neurons can be post-ganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic nervous system

A

true

214
Q

circulating epinephrine ____ digestion

A

slows down

215
Q

generally, sphincters contract in response to increased ___ pressure

A

distal

216
Q

T OR F: the lower esophageal sphincter in humans allows backflow

A

true

217
Q

in response to proximal pressure, the reflex response of the external anal sphincter is to

A

contract

218
Q

in response to food entering the stomach

A

the fundus of the stomach relaxes

219
Q

T OR F: gastric pressure usually increases as the volume of food in the stomach increases from zero

A

false

220
Q

about _____ of chyme is delivered to the small intestine from the stomach at a time

A

two teaspoons

221
Q

gastrin ___ somatostatin secretion

A

stimulates

222
Q

acetylcholine ___ somatostatin secretion

A

inhibits

BIOL 322 (4 decks)

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