Exam 4 Flashcards
3 functions of the lymphatic system:
fluid recovery
immunity
lipid absorption
What percentage of tissue fluid is returned to the blood by way of lymphatic vessels?
85%
In the lymphatic system, where are white blood cells waiting to be activated located?
lymph nodes
What are lacteals?
lymphatic vessels in the small intestine that receive digested lipids
What type of biomolecule is absorbed directly into lacteals rather than cardiovascular system vessels?
lipids
What is lymph and why is it the color of milk?
recovered tissue fluid
contains a high concentration of fat
Where is the beginning of a lymph vessel located?
Lymphatic capillaries
Explain why lymph capillaries don’t collapse in the tissue.
anchoring filaments attach cells to surrounding tissues
Explain how tissue fluid enters lymph capillaries.
High tissue fluid pressure
What type of lymph vessels drain into the 11 lymphatic trunks?
collecting vessels
What type of lymph vessels drain into the 11 lymphatic trunks?
Collecting vessels
Which vein receives lymph drainage from the collecting ducts?
Subclavian veins
Using the names of the lymphatic trunks, list the major parts of the body drained of lymph by vessels emptying into the right lymphatic duct.
convergence of r jugular, r subclavian, & r bronchiomediastinal trunk
Using the names of the lymphatic trunks, list the major parts of the body drained of lymph by vessels emptying into the thoracic duct.
Two lumbar trunks & intestinal trunk → cisterna chyli
After diaphragm – l bronchiomediastinal, l subclavian and l jugular
Since there is no pump (like the heart) in the lymphatic system, explain how lymph can move from the tissue to the subclavian veins.
fluid pressure Valves – prevent backflow Contraction of skeletal muscle Arterial pulsation when large vessels are included in sheathes with arteries Expansion of lungs
List the white blood cells that are phagocytic.
Neutrophils
Macrophages
Dendritic cells
Reticular cells
What is the main function of neutrophils?
Kill bacteria
List 2 main functions of T lymphocytes.
Regulate immune responses
Kill virally infected cells
What is the main function of mature and activated B lymphocytes?
Produce specific antibodies
What are the functions of macrophages?
Phagocytize specific bacteria
Antigen presenting cells to lymphocytes
How are dendritic cells similar to macrophages?
Phagocytic & antigen presenting
Where are dendritic cells located?
Connective tissue – mucous membranes & lymphatic membrane
How are reticular cells similar to macrophages?
Phagocytic & antigen presenting
Where are reticular cells located?
Stroma of lymphatic organs
What does MALT stand for and what type of lymphatic tissue is MALT?
mucosal-associated lymphatic tissue
Where is MALT located in the body?
connective tissue of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, & reproductive tracts
How is diffuse lymphatic tissue different from lymphatic nodules?
Diffuse – scattered out
Nodules – dense
Where are Peyer’s patches located and what type of lymphatic tissue are Peyer’s patches?
intestines
Which body structures are considered lymphatic organs?
Red bone marrow Thymus Spleen Tonsils Lymph nodes
What are the function of colony-stimulating factors?
induce stem cell differentiation
What is the name of the sheets extending from the fibrous capsule dividing the thymus into lobes?
trabeculae (septa)
How is the organization of cell types in the thymus important for ensuring that autoimmune diseases don’t occur?
T lymphocytes develop self-tolerance by interacting with epithelial cells
What immune system signaling molecules are released by cells in the thymus?
thymosin thymopoietin thymulin interleukins interferon
About how many lymph nodes are there in the body?
450
Which type of lymph vessel brings lymph to a lymph node?
afferent
Which type of lymph vessel takes lymph away from a lymph node?
efferent
In a lymph node, what types of cells circulate in the subcapsular sinus?
macrophages & dendritic
What part of the lymph node is surrounded by the medulla?
cortex
In a lymph node, what occupies the germinal center?
lymphocytes
What is the location of pharyngeal tonsils, palatine tonsils, lingual tonsils?
Pharyngeal – medial & posterior to nasal cavity
Palatine – posterior margin of oral cavity
lingual – embedded in the root of the tongue
Describe the red pulp of the spleen.
sinuses filled with erythrocytes
Describe the white pulp of the spleen.
lymphocytes & macrophages organized around branches of the splenic artery
What are the 4 main functions of the spleen?
Removal of worn erythrocytes
Reservoir of monocytes (macrophages)
Reduce blood volume by transferring plasma to lymphatic vessels
Immune surveillance of blood
In general, what body structures are part of the body’s 1st line of defense?
External barrier
In general, what body structures, molecules, and processes are part of the body’s 2nd line of defense?
leukocytes macrophages antimicrobial proteins natural killer cells fever inflammation
In general, what part of the immune system makes up the body’s 3rd line of defense?
Adaptive immunity
What are the general characteristics of innate immunity?
Local
Non-specific
Non- lasting
What is dermicidin and where is it found?
Sweat
Skin
What are defensins and cathelicidins and which cell type produces them?
Peptides – keratinocytes & skin immune cells
What is the function of mucus?
Ensnare microorganism
What innate immune system enzyme is found in mucus, saliva, and tears?
lysozyme
How is hyaluronic acid antibacterial?
Difficult to penetrate
Which chemical released by basophils attracts neutrophils and eosinophils?
leukotrienes
Which chemical released by basophils causes vasodilation?
histamine
Which chemical released by basophils inhibits blood clotting?
heparin
Explain how cells of the macrophage system are able to bridge the innate and adaptive immune systems. Use MHC II and antigen presentation in your explanation.
Cells are phagocytic & present antigen on MHC II molecules to lymphocytes
Where are dendritic cells found? Microglia? Alveolar macrophages? Stellate macrophages?
Dendritic – skin
Microglia – CNS
Alveolar – lungs
Stellate – liver
Which type of infections result in the release of interferon from leukocytes?
Viral
What organ synthesizes the complement proteins in the plasma?
liver
Which complement proteins starts the alternative pathway of complement fixation?
C3
Explain the process of opsinization.
process of attracting macrophages to cells/pathogens
using antibody & complement
How do natural killer cells recognize bacterial and fungal organisms?
Bind with general associated patterns
What types of body cells are destroyed by natural killer cells?
Stressed body cells
Explain how natural killer cells destroy targeted cells. Use perforin and granzyme in your explanation.
Perforin – large opening in cell, cell fill with water and explodes
Granzymes – protein degrading cells
Is fever part of the innate immune system or the adaptive immune system?
innate
What is another term for fever?
pyrexia
What is the effect of pyrogens?
chemicals that result in fever
Pieces of bacterial cell walls are not made by the body. What type of pyrogen is a piece of bacterial cell wall?
exogenous
What type of pyrogen is Prostaglandin E2?
endogenous
What is the effect of an anti-pyretic medication?
Inhibit the effect of endogenous pyrogens
List 2 anti-pyretic medications.
Asprin & ibuprofen
List 3 general purposes of inflammation.
limit spread of pathogens & destroy them
remove the debris of damaged tissue
initiate tissue repair
What is the role of cytokines in inflammation?
signaling molecules released by cells to influence cells close by and/or secreting cell
Which cytokines cause vasodilation?
Histamine
Leukotrienes
Describe what happens when vascular permeability increases.
Vessels become leaky so plasma proteins can move into damaged/infected tissue
What is the function of selectin?
Expression of adhesion molecules
What cell type expresses selectin as part of the inflammatory response?
Endothelial cells
What is margination?
occurs when leukocytes in the blood bind selectin
What is diapedesis?
leukocytes move out of the vessel into the tissue
Redness is a sign of inflammation. Why does redness occur?
Vasodilation
An increase in tissue temperature is a sign of inflammation. Why does this occur?
Increased blood flow
Swelling is a sign of inflammation. Why does swelling occur?
increased tissue protein → increased tissue colloid osmotic pressure → increased tissue fluid content
Pain is a sign of inflammation. Why does pain occur?
injury to nerve receptors & stimulation from toxins & cytokines
What signaling molecule ensures that immune cells are not trapped in blood clots?
heparin
What innate immune cells are attracted to the site of inflammation by chemotactic factors?
leukocytes
Which cells arrive at the site of inflammation first, neutrophils or macrophages?
neutrophils
What is the function of colony-stimulating factor?
increases leukocyte production in the bone marrow
What are the 3 general characteristics of adaptive immunity?
Effects are systemic (body wide)
Exhibits specificity: only one antigen
Produces lasting memory of the antigen
What is the difference between cell-mediated immunity and humoral immunity?
Cell – individual lymphocytes directly contact & release substances to destroy targeted cells
Humoral – antibodies produced to specifically target exposed antigens
Which type of infections are addressed best by cell-mediated immunity?
cancer cells virally infected cells parasitic worms intracellular bacteria protozoa fungi
Which type of infections are addressed best by humoral immunity?
Extracellular insults
What types of adaptive immune cells are activated during a natural immune response?
lymphocytes
What is an artificial immune response?
vaccines
Give examples of natural passive immunity.
Breastmilk antibodies to infant
Give examples of artificial passive immunity.
Commercial products
What is the difference between an antigen and an epitope?
Antigen – small, non-self
Epitopes – smaller regions on an antigen in response to specific immune response
What are haptens?
Small & not antigenic alone
Give examples of haptens that can result in an adaptive immune response.
Poison ivy & detergent
What type of globulin are antibodies?
Immunoglobulins (IgG)
What is the relationship between a B cell receptor and an antibody?
B cell binds to one antibody
Which antibody isotype is the most abundant in the plasma?
IgG
What antibody isotype is important in the initial activation of a B cell?
IgD
What antibody isotype binds to mast cell receptors?
IgE
What happens when an allergic antigen binds to the variable region of IgE bound to mast cell receptors?
Degranulation and cause local inflammation
Where are IgA antibodies found protecting the body?
Mucous covering tissues
Which antibody is the first isotype to be produced by an activated B cell?
IgM
Which 2 antibody isotypes are the most important for complement fixation?
IgG & IgM
Describe the process of somatic hypermutation.
occurs to create random areas of completely new DNA sequence
What structures of the adaptive immune system undergo somatic hypermutation?
germinal centers
What is the difference between positive and negative lymphocyte selection?
positive – selected for the ability to mount an immune response
negative – selected for self-tolerance
Where does positive and negative selection occur for T lymphocytes?
thymus
Where does positive and negative selection occur for B lymphocytes?
Bone marrow
What is the cell surface marker used to identify cytotoxic T lymphocytes?
CD8+
What is the cell surface marker used to identify helper T lymphocytes?
CD4+
Where are mature B lymphocytes and mature T lymphocytes found in the body?
Lymph system
MHC II loaded with antigen will stimulate which type of T lymphocyte?
helper T cells
How does a Helper T lymphocyte communicate with a B lymphocyte?
Release cytokines
How do body cells normally use MHC I?
incorporated on the surface of a cell’s membrane
How does the function of MHC I change after a cell is infected with a virus?
bind to non-self viral epitopes on MHC I molecules & destroy the infected cells
What is the relationship between MHC I, a viral infection, and Cytotoxic T lymphocytes?
virus binds to MHC I then cytotoxic T cells bind to virus
Explain the role of perforin, granzymes, interferon, and tumor necrosis factor in the function of Cytotoxic T lymphocytes.
Perforin – opens membrane hole
granzymes – destructive enzymes
interferon – anti-viral cytokine
tumor necrosis factor – increase macrophage activity
What is the relationship between the clonal expansion of B lymphocytes and lymphadenopathy?
Increased B cells cause lymph nodes to swell
When does a primary immune response occur?
First exposure
What antibody isotype is produced during the primary immune response?
IgM
How can a secondary immune response happen more quickly than a primary immune response?
Antibodies already present
Which antibody isotype to IgM producing plasma cells switch to during the primary immune response?
IgG
What is the basis of a Type I hypersensitivity response?
Mast cells & basophils will bind the stalk of the IgE
What is anaphylaxis?
strong inflammatory response to large scale mast cell degranulation
What is the basis of a Type II hypersensitivity response?
Antigen binding portions of IgG or IgM bind directly to body tissue
What is the basis of a Type III hypersensitivity response?
IgG or IgM binds to soluble antigen forming large complexes
What is the basis of a Type IV hypersensitivity response?
Cytotoxic T cells attack tissue bound to haptens
Which cell type is infected and destroyed by HIV infection?
CD4+ helper T cells
kidneys are responsible for what 4 regulatory processes?
blood volume and pressure
osmolarity
electrolyte & acid-base balance
Kidneys are responsible for excretion of:
exogenous & endogenous wastes
In starvation, kidneys do:
gluconeogenesis
Nirtogenous wastes are nitrogen containing compounds that are considered what type of waste?
endogenous
Urea is a byproduct of what process?
protein metabolism
What organ converts ammonia to the less toxic form called urea?
liver
4 types of nitrogenous wastes:
ammonia
urea
uric acid
creatine
BUN stands for:
blood urea nitrogen
azotemia:
elevated BUN
urmeia:
consequence of kidney failure
-wastes not removed
4 organ systems involved in excretion of wastes from body fluids:
respiratory
integumentary
digestive
urinary
What pushes the right kidney lower than the left?
the liver
What 3 layers of connective tissue are surrounding the kidney?
(deep to superficial)
renal fascia
peritrenal fat capsule
fibrous capsule
To which structure is the fibrous capsule of the kidney anchored to?
hilum
The term for the glandular tissue that forms urine:
renal parenchyma
the urine collecting cavity occupied by blood, lymphatic vessels, & nerves:
renal sinus
2 zones of the renal sinus:
cortex & medulla
What structures divide the renal medulla?
renal pyramids
area of the renal pyramid facing the renal sinus:
renal papilla
Describe the difference between the minor and major calyces:
minor - surrounding renal papilla
major - draining minor calyx, collect urine
Major calyces join to form the:
renal pelvis
Urine moves from the renal pelvis to the:
ureter
Kidneys recieve ___% of cardiac output
21
main arterial supply to kidney:
renal artery
renal artery branches into:
segmental arteries
segmental arteries branch into:
interlobar arteries
interlobar arteries branch into:
arcuate arteries
arcuate arteries give rise to:
cortical radiate arteries
cortical radiate arteries give rise to:
afferent arterioles
describe the difference between afferent & efferent arterioles:
afferent - enter glomerulus
efferent - exit glomerulus
the capillaries wrapping the nephron are called:
peritublular capillaries
after leaving the peritubular capillaries, blood travels through which veins the reach the renal vein?
cortical radiate veins
arcuate veins
interlobar veins
renal veins
Term to describe blood flow to the renal medulla:
vasa recta
Structure within the kidney the forms urine:
nephron
