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Human Physiology > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

colloid

A

liquid that contains suspended substances

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2
Q

blood components

A 
plasma (55-65%)
formed elements (35-45%)
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3
Q

plasma
What is it mostly
What is it
What is suspended in it

A

liquid fraction
Is mostly water
Is a colloid
proteins are suspended in plasma

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4
Q

formed elements

A

erythrocytes (RBCs)
leukocytes (WBCs)
thrombocyte (platelet)

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5
Q

plasma proteins in suspension

A

albumin
globulins
fibrinogen

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6
Q

albumin
function
In plasma

A

regulates water balance between tissues, blood, and osmotic pressure

transport of hormones (T3 and T4) and other molecules

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7
Q

globulins
function
In plasma

A

transport of hormones (E2 and CORT) and other molecules

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8
Q

fibrinogen
function
In plasma

A

clotting

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9
Q

serum

what is it

A

liquid fraction of blood that was allowed to clot, then centrifuged

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10
Q

does serum contain clotting factors

A

no

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11
Q

what is plasma

A

liquid fraction of blood

blood that is collected with anticoagulant and then centrifuged

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12
Q

does plasma have clotting factors

A

yes

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13
Q

white blood cells

Types

A

granulocytes
agranulocytes
highly motile

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14
Q

white blood cells
granulocytes
Types

A

neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils

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15
Q

agranulocytes
white blood cells
Types

A

lymphocytes

monocytes

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16
Q

WBC chemotaxis

A

movement of WBC between circulation and tissue

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17
Q

WBC chemotaxis in response to

A

toxins

chemicals released from damaged/infected tissue

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18
Q

WBC chemotaxis
inflammation
What does it do
3

A

vasodilation (histamines)
increased capillary permeability
neutrophils and macrophages accumulation

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19
Q

pus

WBCs

A

dead WBCs, bacteria, cell debris

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20
Q

neutrophils
how common
function

A

most common (60-70%)
first responders to infections
phagocytize bacteria, antigen-antibody complexes, and other foreign bodies

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21
Q

most common WBC

A

neutrophils

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22
Q 
eosinophils
How common
What does it defend against
Function
Regualtes what?
A

less common (2-4%)
defense against parasites
attach to parasites and release chemicals to kill it
regulation of inflammatory response

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23
Q

response to inflammatory response
eosinophils

What does it do
What does it destroy

A

aggregate in tissues during allergic reaction

destroy inflammatory chemicals, prevent spread of allergic inflammation

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24
Q

basophils
How common
function

A

rare (.5-1%)

proliferate during allergic reaction

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25
Q

what happens when basophils proliferate during allergic reactions
Releases what?

A

release heparin

release histamines

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26
Q

heparin

A

anticoagulant

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27
Q

histamine release

What does it do

A

increases blood flow

leads to itching, redness associated with allergies

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28
Q

lymphocytes
How rare
What types

A

fairly common (20-25%)
B lymphocytes
T lymphocytes
natural killer cells

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29
Q

natural killer cells

lymphocytes

A

destroy tumor and virus- infected cells

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30
Q

B lymphocytes
Originate where
Differentiate into

A

originate in bone marrow

differentiate into plasma cells or memory cells

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31
Q

b lymphocytes
function
Produce what

A

production of antibodies specific to pathogens

immunological memory

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32
Q

T lymphocytes
Originate where
What type of cells

A

originate from in bone marrow, mature in thymus
cytotoxic T cells
helper T cells

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33
Q

cytotoxic T cells

lymphocytes

A

destroy tumor and virus-infected cells

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34
Q

helper T cells

lymphocytes

A

secrete cytokines to activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells

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35
Q

monocytes
How common
function

A 
somewhat common (3-8%)
leave circulation and transform into macrophages
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36
Q

what happens when monocytes become macrophages

Stimulates what?

A

phagocytize bacteria, debris
stimulate chemotaxis of other cells-
release chemical messengers

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37
Q

Red blood cells

Primary function

A

Oxygen and CO2 transport

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38
Q

Red blood cells

Characteristics

A

Anucleated and biconcave

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39
Q

What does the anucleated and biconcavity of red blood cells allow for

A

Increased surface area, more space for hemoglobin, can fold and pass through small capillaries

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40
Q

What are the 4 subunits of hemoglobin

A

Globin (polypeptide) bound to heme

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41
Q

What is heme

A

Red pigment molecules, contains one Fe atom

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42
Q

What binds to heme

A

Oxygen

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43
Q

Where does oxygen bind on heme

A

At Fe in center (reversible binding)

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44
Q

Where does CO2 bind on hemoglobin

A

Attaches to globin not Fe

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45
Q

How is hemoglobin molecule arranged

A 
4 subunits 
Beta 2 Beta 1
Alpha 2 Alpha 1 
Heme in center 
Globin around heme
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46
Q

Adult hemoglobin

A

2 alpha globins and 2 beta globins

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47
Q

Embryonic hemoglobin

A

2 zeta globins and 2 epsilon globins

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48
Q

Fetal hemoglobin

A

2 alpha globins and 2 gamma globins

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49
Q

When is hemoglobin fetal

A

After 6 months after birth go to adult

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50
Q

Hemoglobin

Forms and affinities

A

Adult, embryonic, and fetal hemoglobin
Embryonic and fetal have high affinity for oxygen
Oxygen from mother’s blood at placenta in lower quantities

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51
Q

Sickle cell disease
What is it
What does it do

A

Abnormality if hemoglobin gene, irregular RBC shape

Cell blocks blood flow or breaks, reduces oxygen delivery to tissues

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52
Q

What does sickle cell carry

A

Carries some protection from Plasmodium parasites (malaria)

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53
Q

Production of formed elements

What is it called

A

Hematopoiesis

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54
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

Blood cell production

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55
Q

Fetal hematopoiesis

Where 5

A

In yolk sac, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes and red marrow

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56
Q

Post-natal hematopoiesis

Where

A

Mostly in red marrow

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57
Q

Hemocytoblast

A

Stem cell origin of all formed elements

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58
Q

Hematocytoblast division

A

1 daughter cell remains as hematocytoblast
Other daughter cell forms either:
1 myeloid stem cell
2 lymphoid stem cell

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59
Q

Myeloid stem cell

Develop into

A

Develops into RBCs, platelets, or most WBCs

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60
Q

Lymphoid stem cells

Develops into

A

Develops into lymphocytes

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61
Q

Erythropoiesis

A

Red blood cell production

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62
Q

Erythropoiesis

Steps

A

Hemocytoblast- makes copy of itself and myeloid stem cell
Myeloid stem cell commits to proerthroblast
proerthroblast goes to early erythroblast
early erythroblast goes to intermediate erythroblast
Intermediate erythroblast goes to late erythroblast
Late erythroblast goes to reticulocytes
Reticulocytes goes to mature blood cells

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63
Q

Proerythroblast

A

Undergoes mitotic divisions

64
Q

Early erythroblast

A

Nucleolus disappears

65
Q

Intermediate erythroblast

A

Start producing hemoglobin
Nucleus condenses
Other organelles degernate

66
Q

Late erythroblast

A

Nucleus ejected

Hemoglobin at max levels

67
Q

Reticulocytes

A

Reticulum

Enter bloodstream

68
Q

Reticulum

A

Fragments or clumps of residual ribosomes and mitochondria

69
Q

Mature red blood cells

A 
Reticulum disappears (2 days)
Cells attain biconcavity
70
Q

What regulates erythropoiesis

A

Erythropoietin

71
Q

What is erythropoietin (EPO)

A

Peptide hormone produced by kidney

Stimulates red marrow to produce RBCs

72
Q

What is the stimulus for release for erythropoietin

A

Low blood oxygen levels

73
Q

Erythropoietin negative feedback loop

A

Stimulus- low blood oxygen levels
Kidneys- increased EPO secretion through blood stream to
Target tissue- red marrow- increase in RBC production
Increases blood oxygen levels
Where does negative feed back happen?- at kidneys

74
Q

ABO blood group

A

Blood type based on antigen on surface of RBCs
Antibodies associated with each blood group
Important for matching blood donors

75
Q

How blood type works

Type a

A

Antigen A
Produces Anti B antibody
Antigen and antibody reaction- agglutination

76
Q

Agglutination

A

Clumping

77
Q

Rh blood group

A 
First studied in rhesus monkeys
Based on antigen D on RBCs 
Positive if present, negative if absent 
Genetically determined 
Rh antigen can develop through transfusion and blood crossing placenta from mother to fetus
78
Q

Tubular reabsorption

A

water and solutes reabsorbed over entire length

of tubule system

79
Q

Bulk reabsorption

A

1 Mostly in PCT- 70% filtrate ( water, glucose, amino acids, bicarbonate) actively transported out of PCT
2 In loop of Henle- reabsorption of Na+

80
Q

Tubular reabsorption- PCT

Apical side

A

Has brush border, increases reabsorption

81
Q

Tubular reabsorption- PCT
Reabsorption mechanisms
5

A
  1. Active transport
  2. Secondary active transport
  3. Electrostatic attraction
  4. Osmosis
  5. Solvent drag
82
Q

Tubular reabsorption-PCT
Reabsorption mechanism
Active transport

A 
Na+ pumped out of PCT into blood against
concentration gradient (requires ATP)
83
Q

Tubular reabsorption-PCT
Reabsorption mechanism
Secondary active transport

A

Glucose and amino acids move with Na+

84
Q

Tubular reabsorption-PCT
Reabsorption mechanism
Electrostatic attraction

A

Negative ions follow Na+

85
Q

Tubular reabsorption-PCT
Reabsorption mechanism
Osmosis

A

Water reabsorption

86
Q

Tubular reabsorption-PCT
Reabsorption mechanism
Solvent drag-

A

Other solutes follow water

87
Q

Tubular reabsorption- PCT

Transport limit

A
  1. Limit to how much can be reabsorbed

2. High concentration of substances will result in some of that substance appearing in urine

88
Q

Tubular reabsorption
Loop of Henle
Thin descending

A

Permeable to water
Water reabsorbed
Concentrates filtrate
Passive transport

89
Q

Tubular reabsorption
Loop of Henle
Thin ascending limb

A

Permeable to small solutes,
impermeable to water,
water retained in filtrate, dilutes filtrate
Passive transport

90
Q

When does filtrate reach its highest concentration

A

At bend of loop of Henle

91
Q

Tubular reabsorption
Loop of Henle
Thick ascending loop

A

Active reabsorption of Na+, K+, Cl-

Impermeable to water (water retained in filtrate, dilutes filtrate)

92
Q

What happens in the loop as water and solutes are reabsorbed

A

Loop first concentrates the filtrate, then dilutes it

93
Q

Tubular reabsorption/Collecting duct

Regulated reabsorption

A

Reabsorption at DCT and collecting duct under hormonal control

94
Q

Tubular reabsorption DCT
Hormone
Aldosterone

Secreted by
Does what

A

Secreted by adrenal cortex

Increases Na+ reabsorption

95
Q

Tubular reabsorption DCT
Hormone
Parathyroid hormone

Secreted by
Does what

A

Secreted by parathyroid glands

Increases Ca++ reabsorption

96
Q

Tubular reabsorption DCT
Hormone
Atrial natriuretic factor

Secreted by
What does it do

A

Secreted by atrial myocardium
Reduces Na+ and water reabsorption
Reduces blood volume and BP

97
Q

Tubular reabsorption DCT
Hormone
Vasopressin

Secreted by
Does what

A

Secreted by posterior pituitary

Increases water reabsorption

98
Q

What does coffee and alcohol do

A

Block vasopressin secretion

Has a diuretic effect

99
Q

Tubular secretion
What does it remove
What does it regulate

A

Removal of substances from blood, secreted into filtrate

Regulation of pH- secretion of H+ or bicarbonate into filtrate

100
Q

What can be secreted by tubular secretion

5

A

Various ions, ammonium, creatine, urea, drugs/toxins

101
Q

What is the nephron

A

Functional unit of kidney

102
Q

Components of nephrons

A

A renal corpuscle
Tubules
Collecting duct

103
Q

Nephron

Renal corpuscle

A

Glomerus

Bowman’s capsule

104
Q

Renal corpuscle

Glomerus

A

Network of capillaries, blood supply for filtration, blood flows under high BP (60 mm Hg) compared to other capillary systems

105
Q

Renal corpuscle

Bowman’s capsule

A

Receives fluid filtered through glomerus (filtrate)

106
Q

Nephrons
Tubules

Types

A

Proximal convulted tubule (PCT), loop of Henle, distal convulted tubule (DCT)

107
Q

Nephrons

Collecting duct

A

Drains to ureter via the renal pelvis

108
Q

Reabsorption

A

Pulling substances out of filtrate and returned to blood

109
Q

Secretion

A

Secreting substances from the blood

110
Q

Nephron type

A

Cortical

Juxtamedullary

111
Q

Nephron type

Cortical

A

Corpuscle in cortex

Short loop of Henle (not far into medulla)

112
Q

Nephron type

Juxtamedullary

A

Corpuscle next to medulla

Long loop of Henle (extensive water reabsorption/ produces more concentrated urine.

113
Q

General urine formation

A

Glomerular filtration
Tubular reabsorption
Tubular secretion
Excretion

114
Q

Where does bulk reabsorption and regulated reabsorption occur

A

At tubular reabsorption

115
Q

Renal circulation

A 
Afferent arterioles
Efferent arterioles
Peritubular capillaries 
Coritical nephrons
Juxtamedullary nephrons
116
Q

Renal circulation

Afferent arterioles

A

Supply glomerulus with blood to be filtered

117
Q

Renal circulation

Efferent arterioles

A

Transport “cleaned” blood away from glmerulus

118
Q

Renal circulation

Peritubular capillaries

A

From branches of efferent arterioles
Reabsorption into blood from tubules
Secretion from blood into tubules

119
Q

Renal circulation

Cortical nephrons

A

Entire tubular system surrounded by peritubular capillaries

120
Q

Renal circulation

Juxtamedullary nephrons

A

Dived into vasta recta

Helps formation of concentrated urine

121
Q

What drives glomerular filtration

A 
By pressure in capillaries
GCP (50-60) out
Capsular pressure (10) in
Colloid osmotic pressure (30) in
Filtration pressure= GCP-Capsular-Colloid= 50-10-30= 10
122
Q

Glomerular filtration
What is filtered
Where does filtrate go

A

Plasma filtered through holes of glomerular capillaries
Filtrate captured in Bowman’s capsule
Substances filtered through pores into Bowman’s capsule
Average glomerular filtration rate (GFR)- 180L/day
Urine output 1-2L/day

123
Q

Filtered substances in glomerular filtration

A

Small molecules filtered out of blood
Water, electrolytes, glucose, amino acids, nitrogenous wastes
Glomerulus capillaries are impermeable to protein (too big) and blood cells, and other large substances

124
Q

Regulation of renal activity

A

Renin- angiotensin- aldosterone system (RAAS)

Regulation of BP and kidney activity

125
Q

Where is dysregulated RAAS commonly found

A

In people with high BP

126
Q

What medication is used in people with dysregulated RAAS

A

ACE inhibitors

127
Q

RAAS System

How it works

A

Stimulus: decreased BP

Kidneys produce enzyme renin
Liver produces protein Angiotensinogen
Renin cleaves angiotensinogen to produce Angiotensin I
Lungs produce enzyme angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
ACE converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II- potent vasoconstrictor

128
Q

What is a potent vasoconstrictor

A

Angiotensin II

129
Q

how does angiotensin II work

A

Stimulates vasoconstriction (increases BP)
Stimulates aldosterone (increases Na+ reabsorption, increases BP)
Stimulates secretion of vasopressin (increases water reabsorption which increases BP, increases BP on its own)
Stimulates SANS activity (increases BP)

130
Q

Ovaries

A

Female gonads

Gamete production, hormone production

131
Q

Follicle

A

Structure that houses ovum (gamete) made up of 2 different cell types

132
Q

Granulosa cells

A

Gamete development, aromatase production

133
Q

Thecal cells

A

Produce androgens, these are converted to estrogens by granulosa cells

134
Q

Two types of follicle cells

A

Granulosa cells

Thecal cells

135
Q

How many gametes are ovulated

Females

A

Only a couple of hundred

136
Q

Uterus

What does it do

A

Supporting and maintaining pregnancy

137
Q

Reproductive cycles and HPG axis

A

Repeat in predictable manner (28-30 days)
Inter relationship between hypothalamus, pituitary, and ovaries
Leads to monthly preparation of uterus to accommodate fertilized egg

138
Q

Menstruation

A

Shedding of uterine lining in absence of implantation

139
Q

Menarche

A

Initial onset of menstruation

Average age in US is 12 years old

140
Q

Menopause

A

Permanent cessation of menstruation
After 40 years old, cycles become irregular and finally ceases
Ovaries no longer respond to LH/FSH
Without negative feedback, GnRH, LF/LSH may increase in effort to stimulate ovaries

141
Q

Ovarian cycle

A

Predictable cyclic changes in oocyte/ovarian follicle (28-30 days)

142
Q

Two components to ovarian cycle

A

Oogenesis

Folliculogenesis

143
Q

Oogenesis

Steps

A

Oogonium- diploid
Mitosis- one daughter cell replaces oogonium, other primary oocyte
Primary paused in prophase I
This occurs before birth

When puberty starts
Meiosis I resumes
Uneven division of primary oocyte
One is small polar body (degrades), one becomes secondary oocyte (pauses at metaphase II until penetrated by sperm)
After penetrated by sperm, completes meiosis II
Splits again into polar body (degrades), one becomes mature ovum

144
Q

Oogonium

A

Formed during fetal development

145
Q

primary oocyte

A

Starts to go through meiosis I

146
Q

secondary oocyte

A

Starts meiosis II
Gets released during ovulation
Pauses at metaphase II
If sperm penetrates oocyte meiosis II completes

147
Q

Follicogenesis

A

Development of follicle that houses the egg
Primordial follicle- granulosa cells- proliferate,
Proliferation of thecal cells- outside of follicle,
Within follicle production of follicular fluid
When ovulation occurs secondary oocyte is expelled from follicle
Follicle ruptures, produces hormones
Becomes corpus luteum

148
Q

Follicular fluid

A

Nourish oocyte

Collects in antrum

149
Q

Hormones of ovarian cycle

Phases

A

Follicular phase

Luteal phase

150
Q

Follicular phase

A

GnRH from hypothalamus- stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete LH and FSH
These travel to ovaries
At first negative feedback from estradiol occurs
Follicle secretes estradiol in very high concentrations triggers switch to positive feedback
High estradiol leads to more secretion of GnRH, LH/FSH
LH surge- large peak of LH secretion- causes ovulation- expulsion of ovum from follicle, follicle ruptures

151
Q

Luteal phase

A 
Corpus luteum (ruptured follicle)
Produces large amounts of progesterone
Some E2 produced (switch back to negative feedback)
152
Q

FSH

Stimulates what

A

Stimulates growth of follicle

153
Q

LH stimulates

A

Stimulates production of estradiol by granulosa/thecal cells

154
Q

what happens if pregnancy does occur

A

Development of blastocyst which secretes human chorionic gonadotropin

155
Q

What happens if pregnancy does not occur

A

Corpus luteum stops function and cycle begins again

156
Q

Human chorionic gonadotropin

A

Preservation of corpus luteum

Corpus luteum keeps producing hormones to support pregnancy

157
Q

Hormonal birth control

A

Exogenous ethinyl estradiol (synthetic estradiol)
Constant level of E2 and progesterone
Negative feedback to pituitary and hypothalamus to suppress secretion of FSH and LH- no follicle development, no LH surge/ovulation
Relies on proper pill use

Human Physiology (4 decks)

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