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Human Physiology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

stressor

A

anything that disrupts homeostasis

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2
Q

stress response

what is it

A

physiological and behavioral responses that attempt to reestablish homeostasis
evolved to help with stressor and bring back to homeostasis

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3
Q

general adaptation syndrome

A

1 alarm reaction stage
2 resistance stage
3 exhaustion stage

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4
Q

what does stress response rely on

A

adrenal gland

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5
Q

what is the inside of the adrenal gland called

A

adrenal medulla

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6
Q

adrenal medulla

A

made up of modified neurons
inner
secretion of catecholamines

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7
Q

what is the outer part of adrenal gland called

A

adrenal cortex

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8
Q

adrenal cortex

A

outer
made up of endocrine tissue
secretion of glucocorticoid (steroid hormone)

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9
Q

neuroendocrinology of stress response

A

integration of 2 systems
1 sympathetic branch of autonomic nervous system
2 HPA axis- endocrine

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10
Q

1 alarm reaction stage

A

activated within seconds of stressor appearing
catecholamine secretion
fast acting
“fight or flight” response

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11
Q

what catecholamines are secreted with alarm reaction stage

A

1 norepinephrine

2 epinephrine

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12
Q

1 norepinephrine

from where

A

from adrenergic neurons throughout body

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13
Q

2 epinephrine

from where

A

from adrenal medulla derived from tyrosine

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14
Q

what does the sympathetic branch release

A

catecholamine

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15
Q

what does the HPA axis release

A

glucocorticoid
cortisol
corticosterone

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16
Q

what are additional hormones secreted when stress response is activated

A

1 beta- endorphins
2 vasopressin
3 prolactin

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17
Q

1 beta endorphins

function

A

pain suppresion

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18
Q

2 vasopressin

function

A

increases blood pressure

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19
Q

3 prolactin

function

A

unclear function

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20
Q

catecholamine functions

7

A

have a variety of effectors
1 increase blood glucose levels
2 increase alertness and memory retention
3 increase oxygen intake
4 increase free fatty acids
5 increase blood flow to muscles used in movement
6 increase HR and BP
7 inhibition of digestion and pain perception

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21
Q

2 resistance stage

A

activated within minutes to hours; if stressor continues

activation of hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis

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22
Q

HPA axis

hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis

A 
stressor
hypothalamus 
secretes corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
travels to
anterior pituitary
secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
travels to
adrenal gland
adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids 
which includes cortisol, corticosterone
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23
Q

what are the target tissues for glucocorticoids that are secreted

A

liver, skeletal muscle

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24
Q

what happens when glucocorticoids reach appropriate level

A

negative feedback at hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

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25
Q

glucocorticoids
what are they
how is it moved through blood
what kind of receptors

A

corticosterone and cortisol (steroids)
moved through blood via carrier
intracellular receptors

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26
Q

what moves corticosterone and cortisol through blood

A

corticosterone binding globulin (CBG)

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27
Q

what happens when hormone binds to receptor

glucocorticoids

A

hormone binds to receptor
receptor hormone complex activates or suppresses gene transcription
alteration of protein leads to response
has variety of effects in the body

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28
Q

glucocorticoid effects

3

A

1 increase blood glucose
2 breakdown of protein and fats
3 suppress immune response and inflammation, reproduction, digestion
all these effects evolved to promote escape from stressor

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29
Q

what does increased blood glucose do in the stress response

A

induction of gluconeogenesis

reduction of cellular glucose uptake

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30
Q

3 exhaustion stage

A

if stressor continues for days, weeks, months, or years
long term or repeated
continued secretion of epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol
( we did not evolve for this kind of thing, creates “wear and tear” on the body)

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31
Q

what kind of stress is alarm reaction and resistance stages

A

acute stress

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32
Q

what kind of stress is exhaustion stage

A

chronic stress

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33
Q

what are effects of acute stress 6

A 
increased energy
increased cardiac output
inhibited digestion
inhibited reproduction
immunosuppression
enhanced cognition
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34
Q

what are effects of chronic stress

6

A 
fatigue, myopathy
hypertension
ulcers
infertility
loss of disease resistance
neural degeneration
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35
Q

physical vs psychosocial stress response

A

we initiate stress response for psychosocial situations
same hormones secreted
same effects on body
but the stress response evolved for physical stress not psychosocial

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36
Q

parts of neuron

A 
1 cell body
2 axon hillock
3 axon
4 axon terminal
5 dendrites
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37
Q

1 cell body

A

location of nucleus and organelles

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38
Q

2 axon hillock

A

where action potential or signal generated

high number of Na+ channels

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39
Q

3 axon

A

carries action potential

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40
Q

4 axon terminal

A

release of neurotransmitters

communication with other neurons/effectors

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41
Q

5 dendrites

A

where neurotransmitters bind from other neurons receive signals from other neurons

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42
Q

resting membrane potential

A

voltage (charge) difference across cell membrane when cell is at rest
slightly negative

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43
Q

what is resting membrane potential due to

A

gradient of Na+ and K+ between intracellular and extracellular environment
cell membrane is more permeable to K+ than Na+ leads to K+ leaking out

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44
Q

action potential

A

temporary reversal of voltage (charge) inside of the cell
voltage within cell becomes temporarily positive
“signal firing”

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45
Q

steps to an AP graph

A 
1 RMP- all channels closed, Na+ and K+
2 depolarization
3 repolarization
4 hyperpolarization
5 return to RMP
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46
Q

2 depolarization

A

Na+ channels open, Na+ rushes into cell, K+ channels closed

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47
Q

3 repolarization

A

Na+ channels closed, K+ channels open

K+ rushes out of cell

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48
Q

4 hyperpolarization

A

“overshoot” K+ rushes out

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49
Q

all or none principle

A

threshold must be reached to generate AP
if stimulus is able to depolarize the membrane to reach threshold, all the steps that lead to AP will happen without stopping

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50
Q

graded potentials

A

changes in membrane potential that vary with stimulus strength
can be summed to increase overall strength

51
Q

what happens if graded membrane potential is strong enough

A

threshold may be passed and changed to AP

52
Q

where do graded potentials occur

A

conducted only locally and then dies out (rather than propagating all along axon like AP

53
Q

action potential propagation

A

a single AP involves only a small portion of plasma membrane but it propagates because each AP stimulates an AP in an adjacent area

54
Q

where does propagation occur

A

from axon hillock to axon terminal

only goes in one direction

55
Q

refractory period

A

unidirectional AP propagation due to refractory period

period of time where a cell is unable to generate another AP

56
Q

what causes a refractory period

A

temporary inactivation of Na+ channels

57
Q

1 absolute refractory period

A

interval of time where an AP cannot be generated no matter how large the stimulus

58
Q

2 relative refractory period

A

interval of time where another AP “could” be initiated, but would require a greater stimulus

59
Q

strength of signal

A

stronger signal result in a greater frequency of APs (not larger APs)

60
Q

neural tissue

A

neuron

neuroglia

61
Q

neuron

function

A

generate, send and receive neural signals

62
Q

neuroglia

function

A

support and protection of neuron

myelin sheaths that surround axons of some neurons

63
Q

transmission of neural signal

A

AP always propagates towards axon terminals

64
Q

myelin sheath

A

surround axon

65
Q

nodes of Ranvier

A

gaps between myelin sheath

66
Q

neuroglia

types

A 
oligodendrocyte (CNS)
Schwann cell (PNS)
67
Q

myelin is

A

lipid-rich and insulates axon, whitish

68
Q

what does myelination of an axon do

A

speeds up AP conduction

69
Q

saltatory conduction

A

from one node of Ranvier to the next one “jumps”

AP only occur at NoR

70
Q

what is concentrated at NoR

A

voltage gated Na+ and K+ channels

71
Q

do myelinated regions have Na+ and K+ channels

A

have almost none

72
Q

where do unmyelinated axons have Na+ and K+ channels

A

along its length, no saltatory conduction, slower progagation

73
Q

myelination and AP conduction speed

A

faster conduction in myelinated axons

thick myelin sheath means faster conduciton

74
Q

axon diameter and AP conduction speed

A

greater axon diameter means faster conduction

greater surface area for Na+ channels

76
Q

synapse

A

junction between 2 cells

77
Q

types of synapse

A

neuron and neuron

neuron and effector (muscle or gland)

78
Q

what does the presynaptic neuron do

A

send signal

79
Q

what does the post synaptic neuron do

A

receives signal

80
Q

1 electrical communication

A

gap junctions

allows ions to flow directly from one cell to another

81
Q

what forms gap junction

A

connexons channels

82
Q

2 chemical communcation

A

very common

conduct signal via neurotransmittors

83
Q

neurotransmitters

6 types

A 
1 acetylcholine
2 monoamines
3 amino acids- GABA
4 purines
5 neuropeptides
6 gases
84
Q

types of chatecholamines

A

epinephrine
norepinephrine
dopamine

85
Q

steps of NT release

A

1 AP arrives at the axon terminal
2 this causes voltage gated Ca++ channels to open, causing Ca++ to rush in
3 influx of Ca++ causes vesicles with Ach to release Ach into the synaptic cleft
4 Ach diffuses across the cleft
5 Ach binds to ligand gated Na+ channels on PSN
6 Na+ rushes into PSN which causes depolarization of PSN

86
Q

responses to NTs: Excitatory vs Inhibitory post synaptic potential
what does it depend on

A

responses to PSN to a NT depends on NT secreted and receptors on PSN

87
Q

excitatory PSP (EPSP)

A

results in depolarization of PSN due to influx of Na+

stimulatory/excitatory effect on PSN

88
Q

inhibitory PSP (IPSP)

A

results in hyperpolarization of PSN due to influx of Cl- or efflux of K+
inhibitory effect on PSN

89
Q

regulation of NT levels

A

rapid NT removal from cleft
NT must be inactivated or removed from the cleft for PSN to receive additional signals
reuptake proteins on PrSN axon terminal bring NTs back for breakdown and recycling

90
Q

what does acetylcholinesterase breakdown

A

acetycholamine

91
Q

what does monoamine oxidase breakdown

A

monoamines

92
Q

blockage of NT uptake (drugs)

A

SSRIs
widely used as antidepressants and anxiety
blocks reuptake of serotonin which causes serotonin to spend more time in the cleft which means its able to produce longer lasting effects

93
Q

other influences on neurons

A

neuromodulator

axoaxonic synapse

94
Q

neuromodulator

A

do not cause EPSP or IPSP

instead depress or enhance effects of NTs

95
Q

axoaxonic synapse

A

axon of neuron synapses with presynaptic neuron of another neuron
increase or decrease release of NT

96
Q

summation of signals

A

graded potential summate at the trigger zone (axon hillock)

must reach threshold to propagate (AP) along axon

97
Q

1 spatial summation

A

multiple stimuli at different spots

98
Q

2 temporal summation

A

multiple stimuli at different times

99
Q

grand postsynaptic potential (GPSP)

A

add all signals together to get a response

100
Q

neural circuits

what is it

A

neurons linked through complex pathways

101
Q

1 convergent neural circuit

A

a single neuron that has many other neurons synapsing on it

102
Q

2 divergent neural circuit

A

axon has many branches of its terminals so it influences many other neurons

103
Q

reflex

A

involuntary response to stimulation, homeostatic,

104
Q

what is the goal of autonomic reflex

A

maintain BP

105
Q

what is the goal of somatic reflex

A

moving away from a painful stimulus

106
Q

reflex arc

A

basic functional unit of nervous system

107
Q

pathway of reflex arc

A

reception of signal

production of response

108
Q

receptor

A

detects stimulus

109
Q

sensory/afferent neuron

A

conducts AP to CNS

110
Q

interneuron

A

relays signal to motor neuron

111
Q

motor/efferent neuron

A

conducts AP to effector

112
Q

effector

A

carries out response

113
Q

reflex arc varies in complexity

A

monosynaptic reflex arc

polysynaptic reflex arc

114
Q

monosynaptic reflex arc

A

sensory neuron synapses directly with motor neuron

115
Q

example of monosynaptic reflex arc

A

patellar reflex

116
Q

polysynaptic reflex arc

A

involves interneuron within spinal cord

117
Q

stretch reflex

A

contraction of muscle in response to stretch

118
Q

patellar reflex

A

1 receptor- muscle stretch detected by muscle spindle, responds to stretch of quads
2 sensory neuron- carries signal to spinal cord
3 alpha motor neuron- sensory neuron synapses directly with alpha motor neuron, rapid contraction of opposing original stretch initiated
4 effector- quads

119
Q

muscle spindle

A

bundle of skeletal muscle fibers

120
Q

responses of reflex arc

A

excitatory

inhibitory

121
Q

excitatory reflex arc response

A

muscle contraction

122
Q

inhibitory reflex arc response

A

muscle relaxes

123
Q

signal integration

A

ascending tracts within spinal cord carries signal to brain
descending tracts modify reaction
gamma motor neuron

124
Q

gamma motor neuron

A

transmission from spinal cord

regulates sensitivity of muscle spindle

125
Q

withdrawl reflex

A

removal of limb from painful stimulus
reciprocal innervation- excitatory interneurons, contraction of flexor muscles, inhibitory interneurons- relaxation of extensor muscles

Human Physiology (4 decks)

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