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Human Physiology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

evolutionary thinking of physiology

A

body’s regulatory mechanisms are a result of millions of years of evolution

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2
Q

what do the systems involved in disease have

A

ancient origins

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3
Q

what can diseases do in different environments

A

present differently

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4
Q

conserved

A

really similar across groups or species

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5
Q

example of conserved

A

heart in mammals, birds, reptiles are homologous

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6
Q

homology

A

from common origins

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7
Q

what is the justification for use of mice and rats in medical research

A

homology

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8
Q

physiology

A

mechanistic functions of the body, integrated across molecules to the whole organism

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9
Q

what does human physiology link

A

links the science with dysfunctions, pathologies, and therapies/treatments

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10
Q

what are the different approaches to physiology

A

mechanistic

teleological

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11
Q

mechanistic approach

A

seeks to explain HOW events occur

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12
Q

teleological approach

A

seeks to explain WHY events occur

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13
Q

which approach to physiology is useful for understanding concepts

A

both
they explain how and why something occurs
example how and why does shivering occur

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14
Q

levels of biological organization

A 
atom
molecule
organelle
cell
tissue
organ
organ system
organism
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15
Q

cell

A

basic unit of living things

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16
Q

basic function of cell

5

A

energy production, waste elimination, molecule synthesis, transport, reproduction
All functions at the level of cell

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17
Q

tissue

A

made of many cells plus extracellular material that perform function

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18
Q

organ

A

a structure made up of multiple tissues that performs function

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19
Q

organ system

A

collection of different organs performing related functions

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20
Q

organism

A

a single individual

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21
Q

what is in intracellular (ICF) fluid

A

large amounts of K+, Mg++, phosphate ions, proteins

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22
Q

what makes up extracellular (ECF) fluid

A

large amounts of Na+, Cl-, bicarbonate, nutrients (oxygen, glucose, fatty acids), CO2, and other waste products

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23
Q

what happens between ICF and ECF

A

balance and interaction of ions and nutrients by transport mechanisms

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24
Q

what must be diffused to be balanced for cell function

A

Mg+ and Na+

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25
Q

Body fluid

what is it made up of

A

ICF (2/3) ECF (1/3)
Interstitial fluid (3/4 of ECF)
Plasma (1/4) of ECF)

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26
Q

where is interstitial fluid

A

surrounds cells, tissues, etc.

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27
Q

plasma

A

liquid portion of blood

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28
Q

homeostasis

A

body at equilibrium
maintenance of relatively constant internal body conditions- despite changes in external environment through a variety of regulatory mechanisms

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29
Q

what is a central organizing them in biology

A

homeostasis

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30
Q

what systems are involved with homeostatsis

A

endocrine and nervous

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31
Q

what happens with the loss of homestasis

A

body compensates can be successful or fail

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32
Q

parts of the physiological control systems

A
  1. stimulus
  2. sensor
  3. control center/integrator
  4. effector
    1 - 2 - 3 - 4
    4 leads to decrease in 1
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33
Q

1 stimulus

A

variable shift out of homeostasis

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34
Q

2 sensor (receptor)

A

structure that detects stimulus

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35
Q

3 control center/integrator

A

structure that determines set point

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36
Q

set point

A

normal range of variable

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37
Q

4 effector

A

structure that generates appropriate response to stimulus in order to return to homeostasis

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38
Q

example of control system

blood pressure

A

1 stimulus- increase in BP
2 sensor- baro receptors in great arteries of heart detect sensation of stretch
3 control center- brain integrates stimulus and signals for appropriate response
4 effector- heart reduction in HR lowers BP

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39
Q

feedback loops

A

control systems operate one or more feedbacks loops

can be negative or positive

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40
Q

negative feedback loop

A

most common

responsible for all physiological regulation

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41
Q

positive feedback loop

A

continued “vicious” cycle

continues unless ended by major event

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42
Q

example negative feedback loop

A

calcium levels too low

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43
Q

example positive feedback loop

A

labor

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44
Q

which feedback loop is rare

positive or negative

A

positive

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45
Q

negative feedback goal

A

reduce stimulus to return to homeostasis

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46
Q

positive feedback goal

A

increase stimulus, continual shift away from homeostasis

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47
Q

allostasis

A

process of achieving homeostasis through regulatory mechanisms

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48
Q

allostatic load

A

body “wear and tear” due to allostasis

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49
Q

allostatic overload

A

cumulative cost of wear and tear

energy demand exceeds supply

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50
Q

what leads to pathologies

A

allostatic overload

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51
Q

1 nucleus

A

contains DNA

directing protein synthesis

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52
Q

2 nucelolus

A

facilitates ribosome synthesis

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53
Q

3 ribosomes (free and attached)

A

a- ER, free- in cytoplasm
protein synthesis
made up of large (60s) subunit and small (40s) subunit

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54
Q

4 rough ER

A

protein synthesis
lipid synthesis
protein modification in lumen

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55
Q

5 smooth ER

A

lipid synthesis
steroid synthesis
assists with packaging and transport
Ca++ storage and release

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56
Q

6 golgi apparatus

A

process and package products from ER

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57
Q

7 mitochondria

A

ATP production

comes from cellular respiration

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58
Q

8 lysosome

A

breakdown old organelles and cellular debris

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59
Q

9 peroxisome

A

detoxification of wastes, toxins (ex alcohol)

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60
Q

10 plasma membrane

A

selectively permeable

amphipathic

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61
Q

11 cytoskeleton

A

structural support
cell movement
cell to cell adhesion

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62
Q

12 cytoplasm

A

area between plasma membrane and nucleus

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63
Q

which step(s) of cellular respiration happen in cytoplasm

A

glycolysis

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64
Q

which step(s) of cellular respiration happen in mitochondria

A

citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation

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65
Q

amphipathic

A

has hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties

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66
Q

cytosol

A

liquid surrounding organelles

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67
Q

cell cycles

A

1 mitosis

2 meiosis

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68
Q

what happens in meosis I

A

swapping of genetic information

genetically distinct from each other and parent cell

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69
Q

mitosis

A

1 division
2 daughter cells, genetically identical
somatic cells
2n

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70
Q

meiosis

A

2 divisions
4 daughter cells, genetically distinct
produces gametes (sperm and egg)
n

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71
Q

DNA structure

A

sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate backbone
complimentary nitrogenous bases (linked with hydrogen bonds)
antiparallel strands
double helix

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72
Q

differences between RNA and DNA

A

RNA is single stranded and has uracil instead of thymine

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73
Q

what does DNA replication produce

A

identical DNA for cells during S phase

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74
Q

what does it mean when DNA is semiconservative

A

some of the original is retained

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75
Q

DNA replication steps

enzymes

A 
1 helicase
2 topoisomerase
3 primase
4 DNA polymerase
5 DNA ligase
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76
Q

1 helicase

A

“unzips” DNA, breaks hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases

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77
Q

2 topoisomerase

A

untwists DNA

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78
Q

3 primase

A

places primer

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79
Q

primer

A

short sequence of RNA that marks starting point of replication

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80
Q

4 DNA polymerase

A

produces new complimentary DNA 5’ to 3’

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81
Q

leading strand

A

goes 5’ to 3’

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82
Q

lagging strand

A

okazaki fragments

backwards 3’ to 5’ so has to work backwards creating these fragments

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83
Q

5 DNA ligase

A

seal gaps between okazaki fragments

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84
Q

complimentary DNA nitrogenous bases

A

C to G

A to T

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85
Q

central dogma of molecular biology

A

DNA replication to transcription to RNA to translation to proteins

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86
Q

replication bubble

A

an unwound and open region of a DNA helix where DNA replication occurs

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87
Q

transcription

A

DNA to RNA
produces mRNA, copying portion (gene)
mRNA is complimentary, have all info needed
copying of information

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88
Q

promoter

A

starting point of transcription of DNA to RNA

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89
Q

terminator

A

end point of transcription of DNA to RNA

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90
Q

how transcription works

A

1 protein factors bind to DNA at promoter
2 recruitment of RNA polymerase II binding to promoter
3 transcription of gene

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91
Q

mRNA processing

A

1 Introns removed, exons spliced
2 3’ Poly- A tail added
3 5’ methyl-guanosine gap added

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92
Q

intron

A

non coding region of RNA

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93
Q

why do we add a 3’ poly- A tail and 5’ methyl-guanosine gap

A

help to stabilize mRNA

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94
Q

translation

A

conversion of mRNA to amino acid chain

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95
Q

where does post translational modification of mRNA happen

A

in RER

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96
Q

where is the protein packaged

A

in golgi apparatus

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97
Q

how many gene’s affect individual physiology

A

many genes

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98
Q

how does genotype and environment interact

A

variation in physiological responses

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99
Q

what can diffuse through membrane

A

small, non polar substances

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100
Q

what cannot diffuse through membrane

A

large, polar, or charged molecules,

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101
Q

how do molecules get through the membrane if they cannot diffuse

A

by a protein channel

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102
Q

example of molecules that can diffuse

A

lipids/steroids, O2, CO2, alcohol

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103
Q

examples of molecules that cannot diffuse

A

glucose, amino acids, ions

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104
Q

modes of transport

A

simple diffusion
facilitated diffusion
osmosis
active transport

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105
Q

simple diffusion

A

substances move from area of high concentration to area of low concentration, until equal

106
Q

concentration gradient

A

area of a lot to area of a little

107
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

substances diffuse from high concentration to low concentration with help of integral protein channel

108
Q

what is osmosis specific to

A

water

109
Q

osmosis

A

water moves to areas with high concentration of solutes

110
Q

what is required for active transport

A

ATP

111
Q

active transport

how do substances move in regards to concentration gradient

A

substances move against concentration gradient

112
Q

secondary active transport

what does it rely on

A

movement relies on gradient established from primary active transport

113
Q

what is the primary active transprot

A

NA+/K+ pump

114
Q

how does the Na+/K+ pump work

A
  1. intracellular 3 Na+ ions bind to pump
  2. ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP + P, P binds to pump
  3. this provides energy to change configuration of the pump, expelling Na+ to the outside
  4. two extracellular K+ ions bind to the pump, phosphate group on the pump get released
  5. pump changes back to its original configuration
  6. K+ is released inside the cell and the cycle repeats
115
Q

what does the concentration gradient created by Na+/K+ pump do
what does it power?
what is it important for

A

helps maintain resting membrane potential
powers secondary active transport
important for neurons and muscle fiber function

116
Q

what is resting membrane potential

A

relative difference in charge across plasma membrane

117
Q

ATP as an energy source

A

energy stored in bonds between phosphate groups

118
Q

what happens during hydrolysis to ATP

A

ATP to ADP+P which releases energy for use

119
Q

secondary active transport

name a secondary active transport

A

SGLT

sodium glucose transporter

120
Q

SGLT

how does the SGLT work

A

set up by Na+/K+ concentration gradient
uses downhill Na+ gradient to move glucose against concentration
Na+ and glucose enter together

121
Q

what does cell communication rely on

what is cell communication used for

A

chemical signals for cells to communicate

chemical bioregulation to help maintain homeostasis

122
Q

what 3 systems work together for cell communication

A

immune, nervous, and endocrine

all interact

123
Q

5 categories of chemical messengers/signaling

A 
1 intracrine
2 autocrine 
3 paracrine
4 endocrine
5 exocrine
124
Q

1 intracrine communication

A

chemical signal produced in the cell and it regulates intracellular activity of that cell

125
Q

2 autocrine communication

A

chemical signal produced in the cell, signal binds to receptor on the membrane of that cell

126
Q

3 paracrine communication

A

chemical signal that affects an adjacent cell

127
Q

where is paracrine communication commonly seen

A

with neurons

128
Q

4 endocrine communication

A

chemical signal (hormone) that enters the bloodstream and travels to “distant” target cell within the body

129
Q

5 exocrine communication

A

chemical signal that leave the body and is detected by a different individual

130
Q

example of exocrine communication

A

pheromone

131
Q

what kind of signal communication is neurotransmitter

A

paracrine

132
Q

what kind of signal communication is neuromodulator

A

paracrine

133
Q

what kind of signal communication is neurohormone

A

endocrine

134
Q

chemical messenger

A

any substance produced by a cell that affects the function of the cell

135
Q

cytokine

A

chemical messenger that evokes proliferation of other cells, especially in the immune system

136
Q

hormone

A

a chemical messenger that is released into the bloodstream that affects the function of a target cells some distance from the source

137
Q

neurotransmitter

A

a chemical messenger secreted by a neuron into the synaptic space

138
Q

neuromodulator

A

a chemical messenger secreted by a neuron into the synaptic space and adjusts the sensitivity of target to other neurotransmitters

139
Q

neurohormone

A

a hormone produced by a neuron, travels through bloodstream

140
Q

long distance communication
what systems help accomplish
what must target have

A

accomplished by nervous and endocrine systems

target must have receptor for chemical signal

141
Q

where are cell connections present

A

at lateral or basilar sufaces

142
Q

desmosomes

A

bind cells together

143
Q

tight junctions

A

forms “tight seal”, creates permeability barrier

144
Q

what does cell connection do

A

can enhance their communication

145
Q

gap junction

A

channel allowing cell communication via ions

146
Q

intercalated disk

A

projections that hold cells together

147
Q

receptors
what is it
what does it bind
what does it produce

A

protein molecules located on cell surface or interior
bind specific ligands in specific target tissues
produce a biological effect

148
Q

how do signal molecules work

A 
signal molecule 
BINDS TO
receptor protein 
ACTIVATES
intracellular signal molecules
ALTER
target proteins
CREATE
response
149
Q

ligand

A

any chemical signal

150
Q

properties of receptors

A

the most important factor for a cell responding to a ligand is if it has appropriate receptors to which ligand can bind
specificity
affinity
receptors undergo a conformational change when bound by a ligand

151
Q

what happens if a cell doesn’t have a receptor for a ligand

A

if it does not have receptors for that ligand, no effect will occur

152
Q

where can receptors be

A

intracellular
or
on the cell membrane

153
Q

where are receptors found if the are intracellular

A

in cytosol or nucleus

154
Q

specificity

A

receptors distinguish their ligands from others

155
Q

affinity

A

strength of binding, how much wants to bind

156
Q

conformational change

A

can change shape, structure

157
Q

what happens when a ligand is bound

what is activated

A

activation of biochemical pathways within the cell

conformational change

158
Q

cells response to being bound occurs via

A

via modified protiens

159
Q

what does a modified protein alter activity of

A

1 metabolic enzymes
2 motor proteins for muscle contraction or cytoskeletal movement
3 proteins that regulate gene activity
4 membrane transport and receptor proteins

160
Q

signal transduction

how it works

A

1 extracellular signal ligand activates a receptor

2 transmission of signal to the intracellular environment via biochemical activity to produce a cellular response

161
Q

what happens to the signal during signal transduction

A

signal is transduced and amplified

162
Q

where are ion channels located

A

in plasma membrane

163
Q

types of ion channels

A

voltage- gated ion channel

ligand- gated ion channel

164
Q

voltage gated ion channel

A

opens or closes in response to a change in cellular charge

165
Q

ligand gated ion channel

A

open or close in response to presence or absence of a chemical signal

166
Q

explain how ion gated channel works

ligand gated

A

1 gate closed, inactive, no ligand bound and gate closed
2 ligand will bind to the receptor portion
3 active state, ligand bound gate opens, allows ions to enter, leads to a response in the cell
3 to 1 ligand dissociates/ unbinds from receptor
1 to 2 to 3 to 1

167
Q

intracellular receptors

how it works

A

signaling molecule has to diffuse through and then bind to its receptor
whole complex travels to nucleus
bind to the DNA and
acts like a transcription factors

168
Q

hormone

A 
chemical substance produced in a specialized gland (endocrine gland)
released into bloodstream
transported to (sometimes) distant target cells/tissues to elicit a response
169
Q

hormone pathways and interactions

A

physiological control system

stimulus, multiple control systems, response in target tissue

170
Q

general features of the endocrine system

A

glands

hormones can be up regulated or down regualted

171
Q

development of glands

what kind of glands are developed

A

endocrine and exocrine glands

172
Q

where are glands derived from

A

epithelium

173
Q

what are exocrine glands

A

hollow center with duct

174
Q

what are endocrine glands

A

ductless- no link to parent epithelium

highly vascularized

175
Q

hormone binding basics

what does hormone interact with

A

interact with cell with appropriate receptor

176
Q

hormone receptors

what are they specific to

A

usually specific to a single hormones or hormone classes

177
Q

example of hormone receptor specificity

A

T and DHT bind to androgen receptor

estrogen receptor have alpha, beta, and gamma

178
Q

up regulation

A

cell makes more of a certain receptor, makes cell more sensitive to hormone

179
Q

down regulation

A

cell reduces a certain receptor, makes cell less sensitive to hormone

180
Q

3 major classes of hormones

based on structure

A

steroid hormones
peptide hormones
amine hormones

181
Q

steroid hormones

derived from

A

derived from cholesterol, lipid based,

182
Q

example of steroid hormones

A

testosterone (T)
estradiol (E2)
cortisol

183
Q

peptide hormones

made of

A

chains of amino acids

184
Q

example of peptide hormones

A

many
insulin
growth hormone
gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)

185
Q

Amine hormones

derived from

A

derived from a single specific amino acids

186
Q

what amino acids can amine hormones be produced from

A

tyrosine

tryptophan

187
Q

example of amine hormones

A

thyroid hormones
monoamines
serotonin
epinephrine

188
Q

peptide hormone synthesis

A

made in advance, stored in secretory vesicles

189
Q

peptide hormone receptor location

A

cell membrane

190
Q

steroid hormone synthesis

A

synthesized on demand from precursors

191
Q

steroid hormone receptor location

A

cytoplasm or nucleus; some have membrane receptors also

192
Q

amine hormone synthesis

A

made in advance, stored in secretory vesicles,

193
Q

amine hormone receptor location

A

cell membrane or nucleus

194
Q

types of cell connections

A

desmosomes
tight junctions
gap junctions
intercalated disks

195
Q

what are hormone classes based on

A

structure

196
Q

1 cell membrane
hormone receptor location
response

A

fast response (seconds to minutes)

197
Q

what hormones has receptors on the cell membrane

A

peptides and most amine

198
Q

2 intracellular
hormone receptor location
response

A

slower response (20-90 minutes)

199
Q

what hormones have receptors intraclelular

A

steroid and thyroid hormones

200
Q

g protein coupled receptors

A

cross plasma membrane 7 times, has 3 protein subunits and a GDP molecule bound to the alpha subunit

201
Q

what are the 3 protein subunits on a g protein coupled receptor

A

alpha, beta, gamma

202
Q

what is bound to a protein subunit alpha on an inactive protein coupled receptor

A

molecule GDP

203
Q

what is a g protien

A

alpha, beta, gamma protein subunits and bound GDP to alpha subunit

204
Q

what happens when a g protein coupled receptor is bound by a ligand

A

conformational change

205
Q

what happens when a ligand leaves a g protein coupled receptor

A

goes back to resting state, inactive

206
Q

what other molecules are present in the g protein coupled receptor process

A

1 adenylyl cyclase
2 cAMP (cyclic AMP)
3 protein kinase A

207
Q

2nd messenger

A

intracrine communication

208
Q

adenylyl cyclase

A

amplifier enzyme

209
Q

cAMP

A

produced from ATP, 2nd messenger

210
Q

protein kinase A

A

type of kinase

phosphorylates protein

211
Q

steps of G protein coupled receptor signal transduction pathway

A

1 ligand binds to receptor
2 GTP replaces GDP on alpha subunit, alpha subunit dissociates
3 alpha subunit activates adenylyl cyclase
4 adenylyl cyclase produces cAMP from ATP
5 cAMP activates protein kinase A
6 protein kinase A phosphorylates intracellular proteins
7 response in the cell

212
Q

example of cell membrane receptor

A

g protein coupled receptor

213
Q

does a ligand for an intracellular receptor have to enter the cell

A

yes

214
Q

what does the activated steroid receptor do

A

initiates transcription

215
Q

what do you get from an activated steroid receptor

A

production of new proteins

response in cell

216
Q

is the relationship between hypothalamus and pituitary important

A

yes

217
Q

what does the relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary form

A

regulatory complex

serve as regulatory system for many functions

218
Q

how does the hypothalamus and pituitary regulatory system work

A

1 hypothalamus secretes neurohormone
2 neurohormone travels to anterior lobe of pituitary
3 pituitary secretes hormones in response
4 hormones travel to other endocrine structures or target tissues to produce a response

219
Q

what percentage of the pancreas is endocrine cells

A

2%

220
Q

where are the endocrine cells in the pancreas found

A

islets of Langerhans

221
Q

what type of cells are in the islets of Langerhans

A

Beta cells
Alpha cells
D cells
F cells

222
Q

what percentage of Beta cells are in the Islets of Langerhans

A

75%

223
Q

what does beta cells produce

A

insulin

224
Q

what percentage of Alpha cells are in the Islets of Langerhans

A

20

225
Q

what does alpha cells produce

A

glucagon

226
Q

what percentage of D cells are in the Islets of Langerhans

A

4

227
Q

what does D cells produce

A

somatostatin

228
Q

what percentage of F cells are in the Islets of Langerhans

A

1

229
Q

what does F cells produce

A

pancreatic polypeptide

230
Q

why is insulin unique

A

only hormone to reduce blood glucose

231
Q

pancreas in terms of endocrine function

A

glucose homeostasis

232
Q

what happens if glucose is high

A

insulin released, induces target cells to take up glucose

blood glucose levels go down as a result

233
Q

what does glucose do

A

major source of energy

breakdown for ATP

234
Q

is glucose important for cellular function

A

yes

235
Q

what happens if glucose is low

A

glucagon is released, induces release of glucose from target cells
blood glucose levels go up as a result

236
Q

what produces insulin

A

beta cells in islets of Langerhans

237
Q

what is insulin needed for

A

normal growth and development

238
Q

what is the only hormone that lowers blood glucose

A

insulin

239
Q

what type of hormone is insulin

A

peptide hormone

240
Q

what is the stimulus for secretion of insulin

A

increased glucose in blood

241
Q

what target tissues does insulin act on

A

liver, muscle, and adipose tissue

242
Q

what type of muscle does insulin affect

A

skeletal

243
Q

what does the the enhanced uptake of glucose by cells do

A

lowers blood glucose levels

244
Q

what can skeletal muscle do during exercise

A

pull in glucose

245
Q

what does insulin do at its target tissues

A

enhances uptake of glucose by cells

246
Q

what does insulin do

initiates what

A

initiate facilitated diffusion through glucose transport protein (GLUTs)

247
Q

what happens if insulin is absent

A

unregulated glucose levels
hyperglycemia
can cause neural shock

248
Q

diabetes mellitus

A

type 1
type 2
gestational diabetes

249
Q

type 1 diabetes

A

autoimmune destruction of beta cells, no insulin production

250
Q

type 2 diabetes

A

receptors for insulin are non-functional (insulin resistance)
initial upregulation of insulin secretion followed by reduction of insulin secretion

251
Q

which type of diabetes has a strong genetic disposition

A

type 2

252
Q

gestational diabetes

A

insulin resistance or reduction of insulin during pregnancy

253
Q

where is glucagon produced

A

alpha cells

254
Q

what is the target tissues of glucagon

A

liver and adipose tissue

255
Q

what does glucagon do

A

induces glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and lipolysis

increases blood glucose

256
Q

what is glucagon to insulin

A

antagonistic

opposite action to insulin

257
Q

glycogenolysis

A

breakdown of glycogen into glucose,

258
Q

lysis

A

breakdown

259
Q

gluconeogenesis

A

producing glucose

260
Q

lipolysis

A

breakdown of fats

Human Physiology (4 decks)

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