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Biology 120 > Exam 3 Study Guide > Flashcards

Exam 3 Study Guide Flashcards

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1
Q

contagious pathogen

A

can be spread from one organism to another

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2
Q

infectious pathogen

A

invades tissue to support its growth

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3
Q

parasite

A

obtains nutrients and shelter from an organism while contributing nothing

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4
Q

bacteria and viruses

A

the most common infectious microbes

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5
Q

bacteria

A

single-celled organisms/prokaryotes

many benefit living organisms

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6
Q

what are the basic shapes of bacteria

A

rod shaped (bacilli), spherical (cocci), and spiral (spirochetes).

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7
Q

bacterial structure

A

have a nuclei region with double-stranded circular DNA chromosome, cell wall, flagella for movement.

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8
Q

bacterial reproduction

A

binary fission: one bacterial parent gives rise to two genetically indexical daughter cells.

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9
Q

exponential growth of bacteria

A

under favorable conditions, population can double every 20 minutes.

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10
Q

Give an example of exponential bacterial growth

A

after 8 hours at room temperature, 2 bacteria would give rise to over 33 million bacteria. Refrigeration slows rate of division.

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11
Q

bacterial infections

A

large bacterial populations are produced by using host cell’s nutrients

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12
Q

toxins

A

bacterial secretions that also cause symptoms

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13
Q

antibiotics

A

medications to treat infections

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14
Q

some resistant bacterial diseases

A

tuberculosis, ear infections, gonorrhea, methicillin-resistant.

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15
Q

List the components of the mammalian respiratory system.

A

Nasal cavity, mouth, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, diaphragm.

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16
Q

Describe the flow of air into the body.

A

Air flows into the mouth via the nose and the mouth, and enters the respiratory system via the pharynx and trachea. Once air is in the lungs, air flows through bronchi and into alveoli, where gas exchange occurs.

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17
Q

Describe the muscles involved in breathing.

A

Movement of air in and out of the lungs depends largely on the state of the diaphragm, a dome muscle that sits directly below the lungs.

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18
Q

Explain how the movements of the respiratory muscles facilitate air movement into and out of the lungs.

A

Contraction of the diaphragm increases volume of the chest cavity, decreasing air pressure and allowing air to flow in. Relaxation of the diaphragm causes the opposite to occur. Muscles surrounding the rib cage and in the abdomen can also contract or relax to cause changes in the chest cavity volume.

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19
Q

Explain the role of hemoglobin in gas exchange.

A

As blood flows through the lungs, hemoglobin feverishly binds to oxygen molecules in high concentrations there. In the body tissues, the hemoglobin releases some of its oxygen load to supply active tissues.

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20
Q

Describe the effect of smoking on the respiratory system.

A

Small particles in tobacco smoke enter the lungs, causing cell damage that eventually leads to chronic bronchitis. Chronic bronchitis leads to emphysema. The tiniest smoke particles are drawn into the alveoli, where they may remain for long periods, exposing the alveolar cells to carcinogens.

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21
Q

List the organs and tissues of the circulatory system, and describe the function of each.

A

Circulatory systems in animals consist of a fluid for gas and material exchange (blood), tubes for carrying fluid throughout the body (veins and arteries), and a pump to facilitate fluid flow (the heart).

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22
Q

Describe the makeup of blood.

A

Blood is made up of liquid portion, called plasma, and a cellular portion, consisting of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

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23
Q

Describe the structure of the heart.

A

The heart is a double pump consisting of four chambers - two atria and two ventricles. The right side pump sends oxygen poor blood to the lungs; the left-side pump sends oxygen rich blood to the body.

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24
Q

Describe how blood flows through the double circulatory system of the heart.

A

Blood from the lungs flows to the heart, where it is pumped into the systematic circulation. After dropping off a load of oxygen and picking up carbon dioxide in the body tissues, the blood returns to the heart and is pumped back to the lungs.

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25
Q

Explain the steps of the cardiac cycle, including the role of the heart’s electrical system.

A

The heart can generate its own beat, via the electrical activities of the SA node. Signals from the SA node are transmitted to the atria, causing these chambers to contract and forcing blood into the ventricles. The signal is carried by conductive fibers to the ventricles, which then contract to face blood out the heart and into circulation.

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26
Q

Describe the effects of smoking on the cardiovascular system.

A

The nicotine in smoke increases heart rate and blood pressure, putting strain on the heart muscle. Nicotine is also responsible for the increase in production of LDL (bad cholesterol), causing atherosclerosis and increases the likelihood of blood clot formation, causing blockages in blood flow.

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27
Q

Pathogens

A

Disease causing organisms. Many different types, including viruses and bacteria, as well as numerous eukaryotic pathogens.

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28
Q

Describe the structure of bacteria.

A

Bacteria are single-celled organisms with no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. They are surrounded by a cell wall.

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29
Q

Describe the structure of a virus.

A

Viruses are composed of nucleic acids encased in a capsid and sometimes an envelope.

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30
Q

Contrast viral reproduction with bacterial reproduction.

A

Bacteria replicate by binary fission. Viruses replicate their genome inside host cells. The viral genome then directs the synthesis of viral components.

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31
Q

List the structures involved in the first line of defense against infection, and describe how they function in protecting the body against pathogens.

A

The skin and mucous membrane secretions are nonspecific defenses that comprise the first line of defense against infection.

32
Q

What does the second line of defense consist of?

A

nonspecific internal defenses, including white blood cells such as phagocytic macrophages (white blood cells), which engulf and digest foreign cells, natural killer cells, which release chemicals that disintegrate cell membranes of tumor cells and virus-infected cells.

33
Q

What does inflammation do? (2nd line)

A

Attracts phagocytes and promotes tissue healing.

34
Q

What do defensive proteins do? (2nd line)

A

including interferons, help protect uninfected cells from becoming infected. Compliment proteins coat microbes and make them easier fro macrophages to ingest.

35
Q

List two different cell types involved in the third line of defense against infection.

A

Lymphocytes help comprise the third specific line of defense in response to antigens on the surface of pathogens. Exposure to antigens causes increased production of B an T lymphocytes.

36
Q

Compare how they recognize and eliminate antigens.

A

B cells secrete antibodies against pathogens and T cells attack invaders.

37
Q

Explain the mechanism by which allergic reactions occur.

A

Allergic reactions are the immune system reasoning to antigen substances that are not normally pathogens.

38
Q

Explain the process immune cells undergo to be able to respond to million of different antigens.

A

Lymphocytes are produced during fetal development and allow the immune system to respond to trillions of different antigens. Antigen receptors on the surface of immune cells are produced by rearrangements of gene segments.

39
Q

Describe the process used to determine whether a cell is foreign or native to the body and what happens when this process fails.

A

The antigen receptors of B and T cells are tested for self-reactivity, and those that react against self are eliminated.

40
Q

Explain the role of memory cells in helping to protect against infection.

A

Memory cells carry copies of the antigen receptor and secrete antibodies against previously encountered pathogens. they help the body respond more quickly if the pathogen is encountered again.

41
Q

Describe the mechanism by which vaccines help confer immunity (MEMORY CELLS).

A

Vaccines contain parts of disease-causing organisms or entire organisms that have been inactivated. The immune system produces memory cells in response to vaccination, thereby affording protection in the case of actual infection.

42
Q

Differentiate between protein and steroid hormones.

A

Protein hormones trigger a response by binding to receptors on the surface of the target cell, which relay the signal to the inside of the cell. Steroid hormones diffuse into the cell and act on receptors there, causing the cell to turn on and off specific genes.

43
Q

Thyroid

A

gland that secretes hormones that stimulate metabolism; along with the parathyroid, it regulates calcium levels.

44
Q

Thymus

A

secretes thymosin, which stimulates T cells of the immune system.

45
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and reproduction. The hypothalamus secretes GnRH, which stimulates the pituitary gland to release FSH and LH.

46
Q

Adrenal glands

A

secrete adrenaline, androgens (male steroid sex hormone testosterone (masculinizing hormone)), and estrogen (feminizing hormone).

47
Q

Testes

A

responds to FSH and LH by secreting testosterone, which aids in sperm production, increased muscle mass, and voice depending.

48
Q

Describe the sex differences in body fat utilization.

A

Men utilize fat more readily than women. In order to maintain their fertility, women require more body fat than men. Women store fat on their hips and thighs, men store fat in their abdomen.

49
Q

Describe the sex differences in alcohol metabolism and life expectancy.

A

Men metabolize alcohol more quickly than women. Women live, on average, at least 5 years longer than do me.

50
Q

Asexual reproduction

A

method of reproduction by which one parent produces offspring that are genetically identical. large numbers of offspring can be reproduced quickly during asexual reproduction, but the absence of genetic diversity makes the offspring less able to adapt to changes in the environment.

51
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

mating between two parents. Males and females produce gametes in structures called gonads. gametes unite at fertilization to produce genetically distinct offspring.

52
Q

Penis

A

the penis of the male reproductive system is involved in sperm delivery

53
Q

Urethra

A

the urethra delivers both sperm and urine

54
Q

Scrotum

A

the scrotum houses the androgen producing testes

55
Q

Sperm

A

produced in the seminiferous tubules inside each testis and are stored in the epididymis before traveling through the vas deferens to the urethra.

56
Q

Seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands

A

add secretions to sperm that help them develop and provide a source of energy.

57
Q

Semen

A

composed of the secretions from these glands combined with sperm.

58
Q

List the female reproductive structures and their functions.

A

The female reproductive system consists of the external vulva and clitoris, the internal vaginal passageway, the cervix at the base of the uterus that opens during childbirth, the uterus that houses the developing fetus, oviducts for the passage of gametes, and ovaries that produce egg cells and hormones.

59
Q

spermatogenesis

A

Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and begins at puberty. Mature sperm are composed of a small head containing the DNA, a mid piece that has mitochondria to provide energy for the journey to the oviduct, and a flagellum. An acrosome at the sperm’s head contains enzymes that help the sperm gain access to the egg.

60
Q

oogenesis

A

occurs in the ovaries and results in the production of egg cells. This process begins while the female is still in her mother’s uterus, then pauses until puberty. At puberty , development of preexisting eggs continues each month until menopause.

61
Q

Describe the events that occur during the menstrual cycle and how they are hormonal regulated.

A

Dyring the menstrual cycle, levels of estrogen, produced by the follicle, begin to rise, eventually stimulating GnRH release and causing a spike in FSH and LH levels. LH causes ovulation to occur.

62
Q

Outline the path sperm and egg must follow for fertilization to occur.

A

Once inside the oviduct, sperm slide through the follicular cells that surround the egg to reach the zone pellucid, triggering the acrosomal enzymes, which breaks down the zona pallicuda and allow the sperm to reach the egg cells plasma membrane. After fusion of the egg and sperm plasma membranes, the sperm nucleus enters the egg cell, and the zygote can begin to develop.

63
Q

Compare the events leading to differentiation of male and female reproductive organs.

A

Embryonic gonads become either testes or ovaries. Ductal structures exist side by side in male and female embryos. In each sex, one structure regresses. Male and female genitalia are fashioned from the same embryonic material. The expression of sex-specific genes and hormones determines whether a particular embryo will become a male or a female.

64
Q

What makes the cellular portion of blood?

A

Stem cells in the bone marrow have stem cells, which re unique and can produce descendants of a variety of cell types.

65
Q

Red Blood cells

A

shuttle oxygen using hemoglobin.

66
Q

White blood cells

A

come in a variety of different forms and are essential to the immune system function. They attack organisms, remove toxins, wastes, and damaged cells.

67
Q

platelets

A

make clots to prevent blood loss

68
Q

what happens in a blood clot?

A

vessels close that are damaged and sticky platelets become attached to breaches in the vessels.

69
Q

pulmonary circuit

A

circulates blood to the lungs, where oxygen and other components inhaled in the air are picked up and carbon dioxide are released. Then it returns the blood back to the heart where it enters the second phase.

70
Q

Systemic circuit

A

pumps blood to the rest of then body where the blood drops off its oxygen and picks up its carbon dioxide.

71
Q

Two mechanisms by which hormones trigger a response.

A

either bind to receptors on the surface of the target cell and trigger a response, or they can diffuse across a cell membrane and bind to receptors inside the cell to trigger a response.

72
Q

Steroid hormones most involved in reproduction.

A

Testosterone and estrogen. Once a sex hormone passes into the cell and binds to a receptor, the hormone and receptor bind to the DNA in the nucleus of the cell to regulate the expression of different genes.

73
Q

Pancreas

A

controls insulin levels in the blood.

74
Q

Pituitary gland

A

responds to GnRH by secreting FSH and LH hormones.

75
Q

Ovaries

A

responds to FSH and LH by secreting estrogen, which regulates menstruation, maturation of egg cells, breast development, pregnancy, and menopause.

Biology 120 (3 decks)

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